D	=	Dead load.
D_i	=	Weight of ice in accordance with Chapter 10 of ASCE 7.
E	=	Combined effect of horizontal and vertical earthquake induced forces as defined in Section 12.4.2 of ASCE 7.
F	=	Load due to fluids with well-defined pressures and maximum heights.
F_a	=	Flood load in accordance with Chapter 5 of ASCE 7.
H	=	Load due to lateral earth pressures, ground water pressure or pressure of bulk materials.
L	=	Roof live load greater than 20 psf (0.96 kN/m²) and floor live load.
L_r	=	Roof live load of 20 psf (0.96 kN/m²) or less.
R	=	Rain load.
S	=	Snow load.
T	=	Self-straining load.
V_asd	=	Nominal design wind speed (3-second gust), miles per hour (mph) (km/hr) where applicable.
V_ult	=	Ultimate design wind speeds (3-second gust), miles per hour (mph) (km/hr) determined from Figures 1609A, 1609B, or 1609C or ASCE 7.
W	=	Load due to wind pressure.
W_i	=	Wind-on-ice in accordance with Chapter 10 of ASCE 7.

Section 1603 Construction Documents

Construction documents shall show the size, section and relative locations of structural members with floor levels, column centers and offsets dimensioned. The design loads and other information pertinent to the structural design required by Sections 1603.1.1 through 1603.1.9 shall be indicated on the construction documents.

Exception: Construction documents for buildings constructed in accordance with the conventional light-frame construction provisions of Section 2308 shall indicate the following structural design information:

Floor and roof live loads.
Ground snow load, P_g.
Ultimate design wind speed, V_ult, (3-second gust), miles per hour (mph) (km/hr) and nominal design wind speed, V_asd, as determined in accordance with Section 1609.3.1 and wind exposure.
Seismic design category and site class.
Flood design data, if located in flood hazard areas established in Section 1612.3.
Design load-bearing values of soils.

1603.1.1 Floor Live Load

The uniformly distributed, concentrated and impact floor live load used in the design shall be indicated for floor areas. Use of live load reduction in accordance with Section 1607.10 shall be indicated for each type of live load used in the design.

1603.1.2 Roof Live Load

The roof live load used in the design shall be indicated for roof areas (Section 1607.12).

1603.1.3 Roof Snow Load Data

The ground snow load, P_g, shall be indicated. In areas where the ground snow load, P_g, exceeds 10 pounds per square foot (psf) (0.479 kN/m²), the following additional information shall also be provided, regardless of whether snow loads govern the design of the roof:

Flat-roof snow load, P_f.
Snow exposure factor, C_e.
Snow load importance factor, I_s.
Thermal factor, C_t.

1603.1.4 Wind Design Data

The following information related to wind loads shall be shown, regardless of whether wind loads govern the design of the lateral forceresisting system of the structure:

Ultimate design wind speed, V_ult, (3-second gust), miles per hour (km/hr) and nominal design wind speed, V_asd, as determined in accordance with Section 1609.3.1.
Risk category.
Wind exposure. Applicable wind direction if more than one wind exposure is utilized.
Applicable internal pressure coefficient.
Design wind pressures to be used for exterior component and cladding materials not specifically designed by the registered design professional responsible for the design of the structure, psf (kN/m²).

1603.1.5 Earthquake Design Data

The following information related to seismic loads shall be shown, regardless of whether seismic loads govern the design of the lateral force-resisting system of the structure:

Risk category.
Seismic importance factor, I_e.
Mapped spectral response acceleration parameters, S_S and S₁.
Site class.
Design spectral response acceleration parameters, S_DS and S_D1.
Seismic design category.
Basic seismic force-resisting system(s).
Design base shear(s).
Seismic response coefficient(s), C_S.
Response modification coefficient(s), R.
Analysis procedure used.

1603.1.6 Geotechnical Information

The design load-bearing values of soils shall be shown on the construction documents.

1603.1.7 Flood Design Data

For buildings located in whole or in part in flood hazard areas as established in Section 1612.3, the documentation pertaining to design, if required in Section 1612.5, shall be included and the following information, referenced to the datum on the community's Flood Insurance Rate Map (FIRM), shall be shown, regardless of whether flood loads govern the design of the building:

In flood hazard areas not subject to high-velocity wave action, the elevation of the proposed lowest floor, including the basement.
In flood hazard areas not subject to high-velocity wave action, the elevation to which any nonresidential building will be dry flood proofed.
In flood hazard areas subject to high-velocity wave action, the proposed elevation of the bottom of the lowest horizontal structural member of the lowest floor, including the basement.

1603.1.8 Special Loads

Special loads that are applicable to the design of the building, structure or portions thereof shall be indicated along with the specified section of this code that addresses the special loading condition.

1603.1.9 Systems and Components Requiring Special Inspections for Seismic Resistance

Construction documents or specifications shall be prepared for those systems and components requiring special inspection for seismic resistance as specified in Section 1705.11 by the registered design professional responsible for their design and shall be submitted for approval in accordance with Section 107.1. Reference to seismic standards in lieu of detailed drawings is acceptable.

Section 1604 General Design Requirements

1604.1 General

Building, structures and parts thereof shall be designed and constructed in accordance with strength design, load and resistance factor design, allowable stress design, empirical design or conventional construction methods, as permitted by the applicable material chapters.

1604.2 Strength

Buildings and other structures, and parts thereof, shall be designed and constructed to support safely the factored loads in load combinations defined in this code without exceeding the appropriate strength limit states for the materials of construction. Alternatively, buildings and other structures, and parts thereof, shall be designed and constructed to support safely the nominal loads in load combinations defined in this code without exceeding the appropriate specified allowable stresses for the materials of construction.

Loads and forces for occupancies or uses not covered in this chapter shall be subject to the approval of the building official.

1604.3 Serviceability

Structural systems and members thereof shall be designed to have adequate stiffness to limit deflections and lateral drift. See Section 12.12.1 of ASCE 7 for drift limits applicable to earthquake loading.

TABLE 1604.3
DEFLECTION LIMITS^{a, b, c, h, i}
CONSTRUCTION	L	*S or W ^f*	D + L^{d, g}
Roof members:^e
Supporting plaster or stucco ceiling	^l/₃₆₀	^l/₃₆₀	^l/₂₄₀
Supporting nonplaster ceiling	^l/₂₄₀	^l/₂₄₀	^l/₁₈₀
Not supporting ceiling	^l/₁₈₀	^l/₁₈₀	^l/₁₂₀
Floor members	^l/₃₆₀	—	^l/₂₄₀
Exterior walls and interior partitions:
With plaster or stucco finishes	—	^l/₃₆₀	—
With other brittle finishes	—	^l/₂₄₀	—
With flexible finishes	—	^l/₁₂₀	—
Farm buildings	—	—	^l/₁₈₀
Greenhouses	—	—	^l/₁₂₀

For SI: 1 foot = 304.8 mm.

For structural roofing and siding made of formed metal sheets, the total load deflection shall not exceed ^l/₆₀. For secondary roof structural members supporting formed metal roofing, the live load deflection shall not exceed ^l/₁₅₀. For secondary wall members supporting formed metal siding, the design wind load deflection shall not exceed ^l/₉₀. For roofs, this exception only applies when the metal sheets have no roof covering.
Interior partitions not exceeding 6 feet in height and flexible, folding and portable partitions are not governed by the provisions of this section. The deflection criterion for interior partitions is based on the horizontal load defined in Section 1607.14.
See Section 2403 for glass supports.
For wood structural members having a moisture content of less than 16 percent at time of installation and used under dry conditions, the deflection resulting from L + 0.5D is permitted to be substituted for the deflection resulting from L + D.
The above deflections do not ensure against ponding. Roofs that do not have sufficient slope or camber to assure adequate drainage shall be investigated for ponding. See Section 1611 for rain and ponding requirements and Section 1503.4 for roof drainage requirements.
The wind load is permitted to be taken as 0.42 times the "component and cladding" loads for the purpose of determining deflection limits herein.
For steel structural members, the dead load shall be taken as zero.
For aluminum structural members or aluminum panels used in skylights and sloped glazing framing, roofs or walls of sunroom additions or patio covers, not supporting edge of glass or aluminum sandwich panels, the total load deflection shall not exceed ^l/₆₀. For continuous aluminum structural members supporting edge of glass, the total load deflection shall not exceed ^l/₁₇₅ for each glass lite or ^l/₆₀ for the entire length of the member, whichever is more stringent. For aluminum sandwich panels used in roofs or walls of sunroom additions or patio covers, the total load deflection shall not exceed ^l/₁₂₀.
For cantilever members, l shall be taken as twice the length of the cantilever.

1604.3.1 Deflections

The deflections of structural members shall not exceed the more restrictive of the limitations of Sections 1604.3.2 through 1604.3.5 or that permitted by Table 1604.3.

1604.3.2 Reinforced Concrete

The deflection of reinforced concrete structural members shall not exceed that permitted by ACI 318.

1604.3.3 Steel

The deflection of steel structural members shall not exceed that permitted by AISC 360, AISI S100, ASCE 8, SJI CJ-1.0, SJI JG-1.1, SJI K-1.1 or SJI LH/DLH-1.1, as applicable.

1604.3.4 Masonry

The deflection of masonry structural members shall not exceed that permitted by TMS 402/ACI 530/ASCE 5.

1604.3.5 Aluminum

The deflection of aluminum structural members shall not exceed that permitted by AA ADM1.

1604.3.6 Limits

The deflection limits of Section 1604.3.1 shall be used unless more restrictive deflection limits are required by a referenced standard for the element or finish material.

1604.4 Analysis

Load effects on structural members and their connections shall be determined by methods of structural analysis that take into account equilibrium, general stability, geometric compatibility and both short- and long-term material properties.

Members that tend to accumulate residual deformations under repeated service loads shall have included in their analysis the added eccentricities expected to occur during their service life.

Any system or method of construction to be used shall be based on a rational analysis in accordance with well-established principles of mechanics. Such analysis shall result in a system that provides a complete load path capable of transferring loads from their point of origin to the load-resisting elements.

The total lateral force shall be distributed to the various vertical elements of the lateral force-resisting system in proportion to their rigidities, considering the rigidity of the horizontal bracing system or diaphragm. Rigid elements assumed not to be a part of the lateral force-resisting system are permitted to be incorporated into buildings provided their effect on the action of the system is considered and provided for in the design. Except where diaphragms are flexible, or are permitted to be analyzed as flexible, provisions shall be made for the increased forces induced on resisting elements of the structural system resulting from torsion due to eccentricity between the center of application of the lateral forces and the center of rigidity of the lateral force-resisting system.

Every structure shall be designed to resist the overturning effects caused by the lateral forces specified in this chapter. See Section 1609 for wind loads, Section 1610 for lateral soil loads and Section 1613 for earthquake loads.

1604.5 Risk Category

Each building and structure shall be assigned a risk category in accordance with Table 1604.5. Where a referenced standard specifies an occupancy category, the risk category shall not be taken as lower than the occupancy category specified therein.

TABLE 1604.5
RISK CATEGORY OF BUILDINGS AND OTHER STRUCTURES
RISK CATEGORY	NATURE OF OCCUPANCY
I	Buildings and other structures that represent a low hazard to human life in the event of failure, including but not limited to: Agricultural facilities. Certain temporary facilities. Minor storage facilities.
II	Buildings and other structures except those listed in Risk Categories I, III and IV
III	Buildings and other structures that represent a substantial hazard to human life in the event of failure, including but not limited to: Buildings and other structures whose primary occupancy is public assembly with an occupant load greater than 300. Buildings and other structures containing elementary school, secondary school or day care facilities with an occupant load greater than 250. Buildings and other structures containing adult education facilities, such as colleges and universities, with an occupant load greater than 500. Group I-2 occupancies with an occupant load of 50 or more resident care recipients but not having surgery or emergency treatment facilities. Group I-3 occupancies. Any other occupancy with an occupant load greater than 5,000^a. Power-generating stations, water treatment facilities for potable water, waste water treatment facilities and other public utility facilities not included in Risk Category IV. Buildings and other structures not included in Risk Category IV containing quantities of toxic or explosive materials that: Exceed maximum allowable quantities per control area as given in Table 307.1(1) or 307.1(2) or per outdoor control area in accordance with the International Fire Code; and Are sufficient to pose a threat to the public if released ^b.
IV	Buildings and other structures designated as essential facilities, including but not limited to: Group I-2 occupancies having surgery or emergency treatment facilities. Fire, rescue, ambulance and police stations and emergency vehicle garages. Designated earthquake, hurricane or other emergency shelters. Designated emergency preparedness, communications and operations centers and other facilities required for emergency response. Power-generating stations and other public utility facilities required as emergency backup facilities for Risk Category IV structures. Buildings and other structures containing quantities of highly toxic materials that: Exceed maximum allowable quantities per control area as given in Table 307.1(2) or per outdoor control area in accordance with the International Fire Code; and Are sufficient to pose a threat to the public if released ^b. Aviation control towers, air traffic control centers and emergency aircraft hangars. Buildings and other structures having critical national defense functions. Water storage facilities and pump structures required to maintain water pressure for fire suppression.

For purposes of occupant load calculation, occupancies required by Table 1004.1.2 to use gross floor area calculations shall be permitted to use net floor areas to determine the total occupant load.
Where approved by the building official, the classification of buildings and other structures as Risk Category III or IV based on their quantities of toxic, highly toxic or explosive materials is permitted to be reduced to Risk Category II, provided it can be demonstrated by a hazard assessment in accordance with Section 1.5.3 of ASCE 7 that a release of the toxic, highly toxic or explosive materials is not sufficient to pose a threat to the public.

1604.5.1 Multiple Occupancies

Where a building or structure is occupied by two or more occupancies not included in the same risk category, it shall be assigned the classification of the highest risk category corresponding to the various occupancies. Where buildings or structures have two or more portions that are structurally separated, each portion shall be separately classified. Where a separated portion of a building or structure provides required access to, required egress from or shares life safety components with another portion having a higher risk category, both portions shall be assigned to the higher risk category.

1604.6 In-Situ Load Tests

The building official is authorized to require an engineering analysis or a load test, or both, of any construction whenever there is reason to question the safety of the construction for the intended occupancy. Engineering analysis and load tests shall be conducted in accordance with Section 1709.

1604.7 Preconstruction Load Tests

Materials and methods of construction that are not capable of being designed by approved engineering analysis or that do not comply with the applicable referenced standards, or alternative test procedures in accordance with Section 1707, shall be load tested in accordance with Section 1710.

1604.8 Anchorage

Buildings and other structures, and portions thereof, shall be provided with anchorage in accordance with Sections 1604.8.1 through 1604.8.3, as applicable.

1604.8.1 General

Anchorage of the roof to walls and columns, and of walls and columns to foundations, shall be provided to resist the uplift and sliding forces that result from the application of the prescribed loads.

1604.8.2 Structural Walls

Walls that provide vertical load-bearing resistance or lateral shear resistance for a portion of the structure shall be anchored to the roof and to all floors and members that provide lateral support for the wall or that are supported by the wall. The connections shall be capable of resisting the horizontal forces specified in Section 1.4.5 of ASCE 7 for walls of structures assigned to Seismic Design Category A and to Section 12.11 of ASCE 7 for walls of structures assigned to all other seismic design categories. Required anchors in masonry walls of hollow units or cavity walls shall be embedded in a reinforced grouted structural element of the wall. See Sections 1609 for wind design requirements and 1613 for earthquake design requirements.

1604.8.3 Decks

Where supported by attachment to an exterior wall, decks shall be positively anchored to the primary structure and designed for both vertical and lateral loads as applicable. Such attachment shall not be accomplished by the use of toenails or nails subject to withdrawal. Where positive connection to the primary building structure cannot be verified during inspection, decks shall be self-supporting. Connections of decks with cantilevered framing members to exterior walls or other framing members shall be designed for both of the following:

The reactions resulting from the dead load and live load specified in Table 1607.1, or the snow load specified in Section 1608, in accordance with Section 1605, acting on all portions of the deck.
The reactions resulting from the dead load and live load specified in Table 1607.1, or the snow load specified in Section 1608, in accordance with Section 1605, acting on the cantilevered portion of the deck, and no live load or snow load on the remaining portion of the deck.

1604.9 Counteracting Structural Actions

Structural members, systems, components and cladding shall be designed to resist forces due to earthquakes and wind, with consideration of overturning, sliding and uplift. Continuous load paths shall be provided for transmitting these forces to the foundation. Where sliding is used to isolate the elements, the effects of friction between sliding elements shall be included as a force.

1604.10 Wind and Seismic Detailing

Lateral force-resisting systems shall meet seismic detailing requirements and limitations prescribed in this code and ASCE 7, excluding Chapter 14 and Appendix 11A, even when wind load effects are greater than seismic load effects.

Section 1605 Load Combinations

1605.1 General

Buildings and other structures and portions thereof shall be designed to resist:

The load combinations specified in Section 1605.2, 1605.3.1 or 1605.3.2;
The load combinations specified in Chapters 18 through 23; and
The seismic load effects including overstrength factor in accordance with Section 12.4.3 of ASCE 7 where required by Section 12.2.5.2, 12.3.3.3 or 12.10.2.1 of ASCE 7. With the simplified procedure of ASCE 7 Section 12.14, the seismic load effects including overstrength factor in accordance with Section 12.14.3.2 of ASCE 7 shall be used.

Applicable loads shall be considered, including both earthquake and wind, in accordance with the specified load combinations. Each load combination shall also be investigated with one or more of the variable loads set to zero.

Where the load combinations with overstrength factor in Section 12.4.3.2 of ASCE 7 apply, they shall be used as follows:

The basic combinations for strength design with overstrength factor in lieu of Equations 16-5 and 16-7 in Section 1605.2.
The basic combinations for allowable stress design with overstrength factor in lieu of Equations 16-12, 16-14 and 16-16 in Section 1605.3.1.
The basic combinations for allowable stress design with overstrength factor in lieu of Equations 16-21 and 16-22 in Section 1605.3.2.

1605.1.1 Stability

Regardless of which load combinations are used to design for strength, where overall structure stability (such as stability against overturning, sliding, or buoyancy) is being verified, use of the load combinations specified in Section 1605.2 or 1605.3 shall be permitted. Where the load combinations specified in Section 1605.2 are used, strength reduction factors applicable to soil resistance shall be provided by a registered design professional. The stability of retaining walls shall be verified in accordance with Section 1807.2.3.

1605.2 Load Combinations Using Strength Design or Load and Resistance Factor Design

Where strength design or load and resistance factor design is used, buildings and other structures, and portions thereof, shall be designed to resist the most critical effects resulting from the following combinations of factored loads:

1.4(D +F)

(Equation 16-1)

1.2(D + F) + 1.6(L + H) + 0.5(L_r or S or R)

(Equation 16-2)

1.2(D + F) + 1.6(L_r or S or R) + 1.6H + (f₁L or 0.5W)

(Equation 16-3)

1.2(D + F) + 1.0W + f₁L + 1.6H + 0.5(L_ror S or R)

(Equation 16-4)

1.2(D + F) + 1.0E + f₁L + 1.6H + f₂S

(Equation 16-5)

0.9D+ 1.0W+ 1.6H

(Equation 16-6)

0.9(D + F) + 1.0E+ 1.6H

(Equation 16-7)

where:

f₁	=	1 for places of public assembly live loads in excess of 100 pounds per square foot (4.79 kN/m²), and parking garages; and 0.5 for other live loads.
f₂	=	0.7 for roof configurations (such as saw tooth) that do not shed snow off the structure, and 0.2 for other roof configurations.

Exceptions:

Where other factored load combinations are specifically required by other provisions of this code, such combinations shall take precedence.
Where the effect of H resists the primary variable load effect, a load factor of 0.9 shall be included with H where H is permanent and H shall be set to zero for all other conditions.

1605.2.1 Other Loads

Where flood loads, F_a, are to be considered in the design, the load combinations of Section 2.3.3 of ASCE 7 shall be used. Where self-straining loads, T, are considered in design, their structural effects in combination with other loads shall be determined in accordance with Section 2.3.5 of ASCE 7. Where an ice-sensitive structure is subjected to loads due to atmospheric icing, the load combinations of Section 2.3.4 of ASCE 7 shall be considered.

1605.3 Load Combinations Using Allowable Stress Design

1605.3.1 Basic Load Combinations

Where allowable stress design (working stress design), as permitted by this code, is used, structures and portions thereof shall resist the most critical effects resulting from the following combinations of loads:

D + F

(Equation 16-8)

D + H + F + L

(Equation 16-9)

D + H + F + (L_r or S or R)

(Equation 16-10)

D + H + F+ 0.75(L) + 0.75(L_ror S or R)

(Equation 16-11)

D + H + F + (0.6W or 0.7E)

(Equation 16-12)

D + H + F + 0.75(0.6W) + 0.75L + 0.75(L_r or S or R)

(Equation 16-13)

D + H + F + 0.75 (0.7 E) + 0.75 L + 0.75 S

(Equation 16-14)

0.6D + 0.6W+H

(Equation 16-15)

0.6(D + F) + 0.7E+H

(Equation 16-16)

Exceptions:

Crane hook loads need not be combined with roof live load or with more than three-fourths of the snow load or one-half of the wind load.
Flat roof snow loads of 30 psf (1.44 kN/m²) or less and roof live loads of 30 psf (1.44 kN/m²) or less need not be combined with seismic loads. Where flat roof snow loads exceed 30 psf (1.44 kN/m²), 20 percent shall be combined with seismic loads.
Where the effect of H resists the primary variable load effect, a load factor of 0.6 shall be included with H where H is permanent and H shall be set to zero for all other conditions.
In Equation 16-15, the wind load, W, is permitted to be reduced in accordance with Exception 2 of Section 2.4.1 of ASCE 7.
In Equation 16-16, 0.6 D is permitted to be increased to 0.9 D for the design of special reinforced masonry shear walls complying with Chapter 21.

1605.3.1.1 Stress Increases

Increases in allowable stresses specified in the appropriate material chapter or the referenced standards shall not be used with the load combinations of Section 1605.3.1, except that increases shall be permitted in accordance with Chapter 23.

1605.3.1.2 Other Loads

Where flood loads, F_a, are to be considered in design, the load combinations of Section 2.4.2 of ASCE 7 shall be used. Where self-straining loads, T, are considered in design, their structural effects in combination with other loads shall be determined in accordance with Section 2.4.4 of ASCE 7. Where an ice-sensitive structure is subjected to loads due to atmospheric icing, the load combinations of Section 2.4.3 of ASCE 7 shall be considered.

1605.3.2 Alternative Basic Load Combinations

In lieu of the basic load combinations specified in Section 1605.3.1, structures and portions thereof shall be permitted to be designed for the most critical effects resulting from the following combinations. When using these alternative basic load combinations that include wind or seismic loads, allowable stresses are permitted to be increased or load combinations reduced where permitted by the material chapter of this code or the referenced standards. For load combinations that include the counteracting effects of dead and wind loads, only two-thirds of the minimum dead load likely to be in place during a design wind event shall be used. When using allowable stresses which have been increased or load combinations which have been reduced as permitted by the material chapter of this code or the referenced standards, where wind loads are calculated in accordance with Chapters 26 through 31 of ASCE 7, the coefficient (ω) in the following equations shall be taken as 1.3. For other wind loads, (ω) shall be taken as 1. When allowable stresses have not been increased or load combinations have not been reduced as permitted by the material chapter of this code or the referenced standards, (ω) shall be taken as 1. When using these alternative load combinations to evaluate sliding, overturning and soil bearing at the soil-structure interface, the reduction of foundation overturning from Section 12.13.4 in ASCE 7 shall not be used. When using these alternative basic load combinations for proportioning foundations for loadings, which include seismic loads, the vertical seismic load effect, E_v, in Equation 12.4-4 of ASCE 7 is permitted to be taken equal to zero.

D + L + (L_r or S or R)

(Equation 16-17)

D + L + 0.6 ωW

(Equation 16-18)

D + L + 0.6 ωW + S/2

(Equation 16-19)

D + L + S + 0.6 ωW/2

(Equation 16-20)

D + L + S + E/1.4

(Equation 16-21)

0.9D + E/1.4

(Equation 16-22)

Exceptions:

Crane hook loads need not be combined with roof live loads or with more than three-fourths of the snow load or one-half of the wind load.
Flat roof snow loads of 30 psf (1.44 kN/m²) or less and roof live loads of 30 psf (1.44 kN/m²) or less need not be combined with seismic loads. Where flat roof snow loads exceed 30 psf (1.44 kN/m²), 20 percent shall be combined with seismic loads.

1605.3.2.1 Other Loads

Where F, H or T are to be considered in the design, each applicable load shall be added to the combinations specified in Section 1605.3.2. Where self-straining loads, T, are considered in design, their structural effects in combination with other loads shall be determined in accordance with Section 2.4.4 of ASCE 7.

Section 1606 Dead Loads

1606.1 General

Dead loads are those loads defined in Section 202. Dead loads shall be considered permanent loads.

1606.2 Design Dead Load

For purposes of design, the actual weights of materials of construction and fixed service equipment shall be used. In the absence of definite information, values used shall be subject to the approval of the building official.

Section 1607 Live Loads

1607.1 General

Live loads are those loads defined in Section 1602.1.

TABLE 1607.1
MINIMUM UNIFORMLY DISTRIBUTED LIVE LOADS,*L_o*,
AND MINIMUM CONCENTRATED LIVE LOADS^g
OCCUPANCY OR USE	UNIFORM (psf)	CONCENTRATED (lbs.)
1. Apartments (see residential)	—	—
2. Access floor systems
Office use	50	2,000
Computer use	100	2,000
3. Armories and drill rooms	150^m	—
4. Assembly areas		—
Fixed seats (fastened to floor)	60^m
Follow spot, projections and control rooms	50
Lobbies	100^m
Movable seats	100^m
Stage floors	150^m
Platforms (assembly)	100^m
Other assembly areas	100^m
5. Balconies and decks^h	Same as occupancy served	—
6. Catwalks	40	300
7. Cornices	60	—
8. Corridors		—
First floor	100
Other floors	Same as occupancy served except as indicated
9. Dining rooms and restaurants	100^m	—
10. Dwellings (see residential)	—	—
11. Elevator machine room grating (on area of 2 inches by 2 inches)	—	300
12. Finish light floor plate construction (on area of 1 inch by 1 inch)	—	200
13. Fire escapes	100	—
On single-family dwellings only	40	—
14. Garages (passenger vehicles only)	40^m	Note a
Trucks and buses	See Section 1607.7
15. Handrails, guards and grab bars	See Section 1607.8
16. Helipads	See Section 1607.6
17. Hospitals
Corridors above first floor	80	1,000
Operating rooms, laboratories	60	1,000
Patient rooms	40	1,000
18. Hotels (see residential)	—	—
19. Libraries
Corridors above first floor	80	1,000
Reading rooms	60	1,000
Stack rooms	150^{b, m}	1,000
20. Manufacturing
Heavy	250^m	3,000
Light	125^m	2,000
21. Marquees	75	—
22. Office buildings
Corridors above first floor	80	2,000
File and computer rooms shall be designed for heavier loads based on anticipated occupancy	—	—
Lobbies and first-floor corridors	100	2,000
Offices	50	2,000
23. Penal institutions		—
Cell blocks	40
Corridors	100
24. Recreational uses:		—
Bowling alleys, poolrooms and similar uses	75^m
Dance halls and ballrooms	100^m
Gymnasiums	100^m
Reviewing stands, grandstands and bleachers	100^{c, m}
Stadiums and arenas with fixed seats (fastened to floor)	60^{c, m}
25. Residential		—
One- and two-family dwellings
Uninhabitable attics without storageⁱ	10
Uninhabitable attics with storage^{i, j, k}	20
Habitable attics and sleeping areas^k	30
All other areas	40
Hotels and multi-family dwellings
Private rooms and corridors serving them	40
Public rooms^m and corridors serving them	100
26. Roofs
All roof surfaces subject to maintenance workers		300
Awnings and canopies:
Fabric construction supported by a skeleton structure	5 nonreducible
All other construction	20
Ordinary flat, pitched, and curved roofs (that are not occupiable)	20
Primary roof members exposed to a work floor
Single panel point of lower chord of roof trusses or any point along primary structural members supporting roofs over manufacturing, storage warehouses, and repair garages		2,000
All other primary roof members		300
Occupiable roofs:
Roof gardens	100
Assembly areas	100^m
All other similar areas	Note 1	Note 1
27. Schools
Classrooms	40	1,000
Corridors above first floor	80	1,000
First-floor corridors	100	1,000
28. Scuttles, skylight ribs and accessible ceilings	—	200
29. Sidewalks, vehicular driveways and yards, subject to trucking	250^{d, m}	8,000^e
30. Stairs and exits
One- and two-family dwellings	40	300^f
All other	100	300^f
31. Storage warehouses (shall be designed for heavier loads if required for anticipated storage)		—
Heavy	250^m
Light	125^m
32. Stores
Retail
First floor	100	1,000
Upper floors	75	1,000
Wholesale, all floors	125^m	1,000
33. Vehicle barriers	See Section 1607.8.3
34. Walkways and elevated platforms (other than exitways)	60	—
35. Yards and terraces, pedestrians	100^m	—

For SI: 1 inch = 25.4 mm, 1 square inch = 645.16 mm²,

1 square foot = 0.0929 m²,

1 pound per square foot = 0.0479 kN/m², 1 pound = 0.004448 kN,

1 pound per cubic foot = 16 kg/m³.

Floors in garages or portions of buildings used for the storage of motor vehicles shall be designed for the uniformly distributed live loads of Table 1607.1 or the following concentrated loads: (1) for garages restricted to passenger vehicles accommodating not more than nine passengers, 3,000 pounds acting on an area of 4.5 inches by 4.5 inches; (2) for mechanical parking structures without slab or deck that are used for storing passenger vehicles only, 2,250 pounds per wheel.
The loading applies to stack room floors that support nonmobile, double-faced library book stacks, subject to the following limitations:
1. The nominal bookstack unit height shall not exceed 90 inches;
2. The nominal shelf depth shall not exceed 12 inches for each face; and
3. Parallel rows of double-faced book stacks shall be separated by aisles not less than 36 inches wide.
Design in accordance with ICC 300.
Other uniform loads in accordance with an approved method containing provisions for truck loadings shall also be considered where appropriate.
The concentrated wheel load shall be applied on an area of 4.5 inches by 4.5 inches.
The minimum concentrated load on stair treads shall be applied on an area of 2 inches by 2 inches. This load need not be assumed to act concurrently with the uniform load.
Where snow loads occur that are in excess of the design conditions, the structure shall be designed to support the loads due to the increased loads caused by drift buildup or a greater snow design determined by the building official (see Section 1608).
See Section 1604.8.3 for decks attached to exterior walls.
Uninhabitable attics without storage are those where the maximum clear height between the joists and rafters is less than 42 inches, or where there are not two or more adjacent trusses with web configurations capable of accommodating an assumed rectangle 42 inches in height by 24 inches in width, or greater, within the plane of the trusses. This live load need not be assumed to act concurrently with any other live load requirements.
Uninhabitable attics with storage are those where the maximum clear height between the joists and rafters is 42 inches or greater, or where there are two or more adjacent trusses with web configurations capable of accommodating an assumed rectangle 42 inches in height by 24 inches in width, or greater, within the plane of the trusses.

The live load need only be applied to those portions of the joists or truss bottom chords where both of the following conditions are met:
1. The attic area is accessible from an opening not less than 20 inches in width by 30 inches in length that is located where the clear height in the attic is a minimum of 30 inches; and
2. The slopes of the joists or truss bottom chords are no greater than two units vertical in 12 units horizontal.
The remaining portions of the joists or truss bottom chords shall be designed for a uniformly distributed concurrent live load of not less than 10 lb./ft².
Attic spaces served by stairways other than the pull-down type shall be designed to support the minimum live load specified for habitable attics and sleeping rooms.
Areas of occupiable roofs, other than roof gardens and assembly areas, shall be designed for appropriate loads as approved by the building official. Unoccupied landscaped areas of roofs shall be designed in accordance with Section 1607.12.3.1.
Live load reduction is not permitted unless specific exceptions of Section 1607.10 apply.

1607.2 Loads Not Specified

For occupancies or uses not designated in Table 1607.1, the live load shall be determined in accordance with a method approved by the building official.

1607.3 Uniform Live Loads

The live loads used in the design of buildings and other structures shall be the maximum loads expected by the intended use or occupancy but shall in no case be less than the minimum uniformly distributed live loads given in Table 1607.1.

1607.4 Concentrated Live Loads

Floors and other similar surfaces shall be designed to support the uniformly distributed live loads prescribed in Section 1607.3 or the concentrated live loads given in Table 1607.1, whichever produces the greater load effects. Unless otherwise specified, the indicated concentration shall be assumed to be uniformly distributed over an area of 2¹/₂ feet by 2¹/₂ feet (762 mm by 762 mm) and shall be located so as to produce the maximum load effects in the structural members.

1607.5 Partition Loads

ILLUSTRATION

In office buildings and in other buildings where partition locations are subject to change, provisions for partition weight shall be made, whether or not partitions are shown on the construction documents, unless the specified live load exceeds 80 psf (3.83 kN/m²). The partition load shall not be less than a uniformly distributed live load of 15 psf (0.72 kN/m²).

1607.6 Helipads

Helipads shall be designed for the following live loads:

A uniform live load, L, as specified below. This load shall not be reduced.
1. 40 psf (1.92 kN/m²) where the design basis helicopter has a maximum take-off weight of 3,000 pounds (13.35 kN) or less.
2. 60 psf (2.87 kN/m²) where the design basis helicopter has a maximum take-off weight greater than 3,000 pounds (13.35 kN).
A single concentrated live load, L, of 3,000 pounds (13.35 kN) applied over an area of 4.5 inches by 4.5 inches (114 mm by 114 mm) and located so as to produce the maximum load effects on the structural elements under consideration. The concentrated load is not required to act concurrently with other uniform or concentrated live loads.
Two single concentrated live loads, L, 8 feet (2438 mm) apart applied on the landing pad (representing the helicopter's two main landing gear, whether skid type or wheeled type), each having a magnitude of 0.75 times the maximum take-off weight of the helicopter, and located so as to produce the maximum load effects on the structural elements under consideration. The concentrated loads shall be applied over an area of 8 inches by 8 inches (203 mm by 203 mm) and are not required to act concurrently with other uniform or concentrated live loads.

Landing areas designed for a design basis helicopter with maximum take-off weight of 3,000 pounds (13.35 kN) shall be identified with a 3,000 pound (13.34 kN) weight limitation. The landing area weight limitation shall be indicated by the numeral "3" (kips) located in the bottom right corner of the landing area as viewed from the primary approach path. The indication for the landing area weight limitation shall be a minimum 5 feet (1524 mm) in height.

1607.7 Heavy Vehicle Loads

Floors and other surfaces that are intended to support vehicle loads greater than a 10,000 pound (4536 kg) gross vehicle weight rating shall comply with Sections 1607.7.1 through 1607.7.5.

1607.7.1 Loads

Where any structure does not restrict access for vehicles that exceed a 10,000-pound (4536 kg) gross vehicle weight rating, those portions of the structure subject to such loads shall be designed using the vehicular live loads, including consideration of impact and fatigue, in accordance with the codes and specifications required by the jurisdiction having authority for the design and construction of the roadways and bridges in the same location of the structure.

1607.7.2 Fire Truck and Emergency Vehicles

Where a structure or portions of a structure are accessed and loaded by fire department access vehicles and other similar emergency vehicles, the structure shall be designed for the greater of the following loads:

The actual operational loads, including outrigger reactions and contact areas of the vehicles as stipulated and approved by the building official; or
The live loading specified in Section 1607.7.1.

1607.7.3 Heavy Vehicle Garages

Garages designed to accommodate vehicles that exceed a 10,000 pound (4536 kg) gross vehicle weight rating, shall be designed using the live loading specified by Section 1607.7.1. For garages the design for impact and fatigue is not required.

Exception: The vehicular live loads and load placement are allowed to be determined using the actual vehicle weights for the vehicles allowed onto the garage floors, provided such loads and placement are based on rational engineering principles and are approved by the building official, but shall not be less than 50 psf (2.9 kN/m²). This live load shall not be reduced.

1607.7.4 Forklifts and Movable Equipment

Where a structure is intended to have forklifts or other movable equipment present, the structure shall be designed for the total vehicle or equipment load and the individual wheel loads for the anticipated vehicles as specified by the owner of the facility. These loads shall be posted per Section 1607.7.5.

1607.7.4.1 Impact and Fatigue

Impact loads and fatigue loading shall be considered in the design of the supporting structure. For the purposes of design, the vehicle and wheel loads shall be increased by 30 percent to account for impact.

1607.7.5 Posting

The maximum weight of the vehicles allowed into or on a garage or other structure shall be posted by the owner in accordance with Section 106.1.

1607.8 Loads on Handrails, Guards, Grab Bars, Seats and Vehicle Barriers

Handrails, guards, grab bars, accessible seats, accessible benches and vehicle barriers shall be designed and constructed to the structural loading conditions set forth in this section.

1607.8.1 Handrails and Guards

Handrails and guards shall be designed to resist a linear load of 50 pounds per linear foot (plf) (0.73 kN/m) in accordance with Section 4.5.1 of ASCE 7. Glass handrail assemblies and guards shall also comply with Section 2407.

Exceptions:

For one- and two-family dwellings, only the single concentrated load required by Section 1607.8.1.1 shall be applied.
In Group I-3, F, H and S occupancies, for areas that are not accessible to the general public and that have an occupant load less than 50, the minimum load shall be 20 pounds per foot (0.29 kN/m).

1607.8.1.1 Concentrated Load

Handrails and guards shall also be designed to resist a concentrated load of 200 pounds (0.89 kN) in accordance with Section 4.5.1 of ASCE 7.

1607.8.1.2 Intermediate Rails

Intermediate rails (all those except the handrail), balusters and panel fillers shall be designed to resist a concentrated load of 50 pounds (0.22 kN) in accordance with Section 4.5.1 of ASCE 7.

1607.8.2 Grab Bars, Shower Seats and Dressing Room Bench Seats

ILLUSTRATION

Grab bars, shower seats and dressing room bench seats shall be designed to resist a single concentrated load of 250 pounds (1.11 kN) applied in any direction at any point on the grab bar or seat so as to produce the maximum load effects.

1607.8.3 Vehicle Barriers

Vehicle barriers for passenger vehicles shall be designed to resist a concentrated load of 6,000 pounds (26.70 kN) in accordance with Section 4.5.3 of ASCE 7. Garages accommodating trucks and buses shall be designed in accordance with an approved method that contains provisions for traffic railings.

1607.9 Impact Loads

The live loads specified in Sections 1607.3 through 1607.8 shall be assumed to include adequate allowance for ordinary impact conditions. Provisions shall be made in the structural design for uses and loads that involve unusual vibration and impact forces.

1607.9.1 Elevators

Members, elements and components subject to dynamic loads from elevators shall be designed for impact loads and deflection limits prescribed by ASME A17.1.

1607.9.2 Machinery

For the purpose of design, the weight of machinery and moving loads shall be increased as follows to allow for impact: (1) light machinery, shaft- or motor-driven, 20 percent; and (2) reciprocating machinery or power-driven units, 50 percent. Percentages shall be increased where specified by the manufacturer.

1607.10 Reduction in Uniform Live Loads

Except for uniform live loads at roofs, all other minimum uniformly distributed live loads, L_o, in Table 1607.1 are permitted to be reduced in accordance with Section 1607.10.1 or 1607.10.2. Uniform live loads at roofs are permitted to be reduced in accordance with Section 1607.12.2.

1607.10.1 Basic Uniform Live Load Reduction

Subject to the limitations of Sections 1607.10.1.1 through 1607.10.1.3 and Table 1607.1, members for which a value of K_LLA_T is 400 square feet (37.16 m²) or more are permitted to be designed for a reduced uniformly distributed live load, L, in accordance with the following equation:

(Equation 16-23)

For SI:

where:

L	=	Reduced design live load per square foot (m²) of area supported by the member.
L_o	=	Unreduced design live load per square foot (m²) of area supported by the member (see Table 1607.1).
K_LL	=	Live load element factor (see Table 1607.10.1).
A_T	=	Tributary area, in square feet (m²).

L shall not be less than 0.50L_o for members supporting one floor and L shall not be less than 0.40L_o for members supporting two or more floors.

TABLE 1607.10.1
LIVE LOAD ELEMENT FACTOR, K_LL
ELEMENT	K_LL
Interior columns	4
Exterior columns without cantilever slabs	4
Edge columns with cantilever slabs	3
Corner columns with cantilever slabs	2
Edge beams without cantilever slabs	2
Interior beams	2
All other members not identified above including: Edge beams with cantilever slabs Cantilever beams One-way slabs Two-way slabs Members without provisions for continuous shear transfer normal to their span	1

1607.10.1.1 One-Way Slabs

The tributary area, A_T, for use in Equation 16-23 for one-way slabs shall not exceed an area defined by the slab span times a width normal to the span of 1.5 times the slab span.

1607.10.1.2 Heavy Live Loads

Live loads that exceed 100 psf (4.79 kN/m²) shall not be reduced.

Exceptions:

The live loads for members supporting two or more floors are permitted to be reduced by a maximum of 20 percent, but the live load shall not be less than L as calculated in Section 1607.10.1.
For uses other than storage, where approved, additional live load reductions shall be permitted where shown by the registered design professional that a rational approach has been used and that such reductions are warranted.

1607.10.1.3 Passenger Vehicle Garages

The live loads shall not be reduced in passenger vehicle garages.

Exception: The live loads for members supporting two or more floors are permitted to be reduced by a maximum of 20 percent, but the live load shall not be less than L as calculated in Section 1607.10.1.

1607.10.2 Alternative Uniform Live Load Reduction

As an alternative to Section 1607.10.1 and subject to the limitations of Table 1607.1, uniformly distributed live loads are permitted to be reduced in accordance with the following provisions. Such reductions shall apply to slab systems, beams, girders, columns, piers, walls and foundations.

A reduction shall not be permitted where the live load exceeds 100 psf (4.79 kN/m²) except that the design live load for members supporting two or more floors is permitted to be reduced by a maximum of 20 percent.
Exception: For uses other than storage, where approved, additional live load reductions shall be permitted where shown by the registered design professional that a rational approach has been used and that such reductions are warranted.
A reduction shall not be permitted in passenger vehicle parking garages except that the live loads for members supporting two or more floors are permitted to be reduced by a maximum of 20 percent.
For live loads not exceeding 100 psf (4.79 kN/m²), the design live load for any structural member supporting 150 square feet (13.94 m²) or more is permitted to be reduced in accordance with Equation 16-24.
For one-way slabs, the area, A, for use in Equation 16-24 shall not exceed the product of the slab span and a width normal to the span of 0.5 times the slab span.

R = 0.08(A — 150)

(Equation 16-24)

For SI: R = 0.861(A — 13.94)

Such reduction shall not exceed the smallest of:

40 percent for horizontal members;
60 percent for vertical members; or
R as determined by the following equation.

R = 23.1(1+ D/L_o)

(Equation 16-25)

where:

A	=	Area of floor supported by the member, square feet (m²).
D	=	Dead load per square foot (m²) of area supported.
L_o	=	Unreduced live load per square foot (m²) of area supported.
R	=	Reduction in percent.

1607.11 Distribution of Floor Loads

Where uniform floor live loads are involved in the design of structural members arranged so as to create continuity, the minimum applied loads shall be the full dead loads on all spans in combination with the floor live loads on spans selected to produce the greatest load effect at each location under consideration. Floor live loads are permitted to be reduced in accordance with Section 1607.10.

1607.12 Roof Loads

The structural supports of roofs and marquees shall be designed to resist wind and, where applicable, snow and earthquake loads, in addition to the dead load of construction and the appropriate live loads as prescribed in this section, or as set forth in Table 1607.1. The live loads acting on a sloping surface shall be assumed to act vertically on the horizontal projection of that surface.

1607.12.1 Distribution of Roof Loads

Where uniform roof live loads are reduced to less than 20 psf (0.96 kN/m²) in accordance with Section 1607.12.2.1 and are applied to the design of structural members arranged so as to create continuity, the reduced roof live load shall be applied to adjacent spans or to alternate spans, whichever produces the most unfavorable load effect. See Section 1607.12.2 for reductions in minimum roof live loads and Section 7.5 of ASCE 7 for partial snow loading.

1607.12.2 General

The minimum uniformly distributed live loads of roofs and marquees, L_o, in Table 1607.1 are permitted to be reduced in accordance with Section 1607.12.2.1.

1607.12.2.1 Ordinary Roofs, Awnings and Canopies

Ordinary flat, pitched and curved roofs, and awnings and canopies other than of fabric construction supported by a skeleton structure, are permitted to be designed for a reduced uniformly distributed roof live load, L_r, as specified in the following equations or other controlling combinations of loads as specified in Section 1605, whichever produces the greater load effect.

In structures such as greenhouses, where special scaffolding is used as a work surface for workers and materials during maintenance and repair operations, a lower roof load than specified in the following equations shall not be used unless approved by the building official. Such structures shall be designed for a minimum roof live load of 12 psf (0.58 kN/m²).

L_r= L_o R₁R₂

(Equation 16-26)

where: 12 ≤ L_r≤ 20

For SI: L_r= L_o R₁R₂

where: 0.58 ≤ L_r≤ 0.96

L_o	=	Unreduced roof live load per square foot (m²) of horizontal projection supported by the member (see Table 1607.1).
L_r	=	Reduced roof live load per square foot (m²) of horizontal projection supported by the member.

The reduction factors R₁ and R₂ shall be determined as follows:

R₁= 1 for A_t ≤ 200 square feet (18.58 m²)

(Equation 16-27)

R₁= 1.2 - 0.001A_tfor 200 square feet
< A_t< 600 square feet

(Equation 16-28)

For SI: 1.2 - 0.011A_tfor 18.58 square meters < A_t< 55.74 square meters

R₁= 0.6 for A_t ≥ 600 square feet (55.74 m²)

(Equation 16-29)

where:

A_t

Tributary area (span length multiplied by effective width) in square feet (m²) supported by the member, and

R₂= 1 for F ≤ 4

(Equation 16-30)

R₂= 1.2 - 0.05 F for 4 < F < 12

(Equation 16-31)

R₂= 0.6 for F ≥ 12

(Equation 16-32)

where:

For a sloped roof, the number of inches of rise per foot (for SI: F = 0.12 × slope, with slope expressed as a percentage), or for an arch or dome, the rise-to-span ratio multiplied by 32.

1607.12.3 Occupiable Roofs

Areas of roofs that are occupiable, such as roof gardens, or for assembly or other similar purposes, and marquees are permitted to have their uniformly distributed live loads reduced in accordance with Section 1607.10.

1607.12.3.1 Landscaped Roofs

The uniform design live load in unoccupied landscaped areas on roofs shall be 20 psf (0.958 kN/m²). The weight of all landscaping materials shall be considered as dead load and shall be computed on the basis of saturation of the soil.

1607.12.4 Awnings and Canopies

Awnings and canopies shall be designed for uniform live loads as required in Table 1607.1 as well as for snow loads and wind loads as specified in Sections 1608 and 1609.

1607.13 Crane Loads

The crane live load shall be the rated capacity of the crane. Design loads for the runway beams, including connections and support brackets, of moving bridge cranes and monorail cranes shall include the maximum wheel loads of the crane and the vertical impact, lateral and longitudinal forces induced by the moving crane.

1607.13.1 Maximum Wheel Load

The maximum wheel loads shall be the wheel loads produced by the weight of the bridge, as applicable, plus the sum of the rated capacity and the weight of the trolley with the trolley positioned on its runway at the location where the resulting load effect is maximum.

1607.13.2 Vertical Impact Force

The maximum wheel loads of the crane shall be increased by the percentages shown below to determine the induced vertical impact or vibration force:

Monorail cranes (powered)	25 percent

Cab-operated or remotely operated bridge cranes (powered)	25 percent

Pendant-operated bridge cranes (powered)	10 percent

Bridge cranes or monorail cranes with hand-geared bridge, trolley and hoist	0 percent

1607.13.3 Lateral Force

The lateral force on crane runway beams with electrically powered trolleys shall be calculated as 20 percent of the sum of the rated capacity of the crane and the weight of the hoist and trolley. The lateral force shall be assumed to act horizontally at the traction surface of a runway beam, in either direction perpendicular to the beam, and shall be distributed with due regard to the lateral stiffness of the runway beam and supporting structure.

1607.13.4 Longitudinal Force

The longitudinal force on crane runway beams, except for bridge cranes with hand-geared bridges, shall be calculated as 10 percent of the maximum wheel loads of the crane. The longitudinal force shall be assumed to act horizontally at the traction surface of a runway beam, in either direction parallel to the beam.

1607.14 Interior Walls and Partitions

Interior walls and partitions that exceed 6 feet (1829 mm) in height, including their finish materials, shall have adequate strength to resist the loads to which they are subjected but not less than a horizontal load of 5 psf (0.240 kN/m²).

Exception: Fabric partitions complying with Section 1607.14.1 shall not be required to resist the minimum horizontal load of 5 psf (0.24 kN/m²).

1607.14.1 Fabric Partitions

Fabric partitions that exceed 6 feet (1829 mm) in height, including their finish materials, shall have adequate strength to resist the following load conditions:

A horizontal distributed load of 5 psf (0.24 kN/m²) applied to the partition framing. The total area used to determine the distributed load shall be the area of the fabric face between the framing members to which the fabric is attached. The total distributed load shall be uniformly applied to such framing members in proportion to the length of each member.
A concentrated load of 40 pounds (0.176 kN) applied to an 8-inch diameter (203 mm) area [50.3 square inches (32 452 mm²)] of the fabric face at a height of 54 inches (1372 mm) above the floor.

Section 1608 Snow Loads

1608.1 General

Design snow loads shall be determined in accordance with Chapter 7 of ASCE 7, but the design roof load shall not be less than that determined by Section 1607.

1608.2 Ground Snow Loads

The ground snow loads to be used in determining the design snow loads for roofs shall be determined in accordance with ASCE 7 or Figure 1608.2 for the contiguous United States and Table 1608.2 for Alaska. Site-specific case studies shall be made in areas designated "CS" in Figure 1608.2. Ground snow loads for sites at elevations above the limits indicated in Figure 1608.2 and for all sites within the CS areas shall be approved. Ground snow load determination for such sites shall be based on an extreme value statistical analysis of data available in the vicinity of the site using a value with a 2-percent annual probability of being exceeded (50-year mean recurrence interval). Snow loads are zero for Hawaii, except in mountainous regions as approved by the building official.

TABLE 1608.2
GROUND SNOW LOADS, *p_g*, FOR ALASKAN LOCATIONS
LOCATION	POUNDS PER SQUARE FOOT
Adak	30
Anchorage	50
Angoon	70
Barrow	25
Barter Island	35
Bethel	40
Big Delta	50
Cold Bay	25
Cordova	100
Fairbanks	60
Fort Yukon	60
Galena	60
Gulkana	70
Homer	40
Juneau	60
Kenai	70
Kodiak	30
Kotzebue	60
McGrath	70
Nenana	80
Nome	70
Palmer	50
Petersburg	150
St. Paul Islands	40
Seward	50
Shemya	25
Sitka	50
Talkeetna	120
Unalakleet	50
Valdez	160
Whittier	300
Wrangell	60
Yakutat	150

1608.3 Ponding Instability

Susceptible bays of roofs shall be evaluated for ponding instability in accordance with Section 7.11 of ASCE 7.

Section 1609 Wind Loads

FIGURE 1609A
ULTIMATE DESIGN WIND SPEEDS, *V_ULT*, FOR RISK CATEGORY II BUILDINGS AND OTHER STRUCTURES

FIGURE 1609B
ULTIMATE DESIGN WIND SPEEDS, *V_ULT*, FOR RISK CATEGORY III AND IV BUILDINGS AND OTHER STRUCTURES

FIGURE 1609C
ULTIMATE DESIGN WIND SPEEDS, *V_ULT*, FOR RISK CATEGORY I BUILDINGS AND OTHER STRUCTURES

1609.1 Applications

Buildings, structures and parts thereof shall be designed to withstand the minimum wind loads prescribed herein. Decreases in wind loads shall not be made for the effect of shielding by other structures.

1609.1.1 Determination of Wind Loads

Wind loads on every building or structure shall be determined in accordance with Chapters 26 to 30 of ASCE 7 or provisions of the alternate all-heights method in Section 1609.6. The type of opening protection required, the ultimate design wind speed, V_ult, and the exposure category for a site is permitted to be determined in accordance with Section 1609 or ASCE 7. Wind shall be assumed to come from any horizontal direction and wind pressures shall be assumed to act normal to the surface considered.

Exceptions:

Subject to the limitations of Section 1609.1.1.1, the provisions of ICC 600 shall be permitted for applicable Group R-2 and R-3 buildings.
Subject to the limitations of Section 1609.1.1.1, residential structures using the provisions of AF&PA WFCM.
Subject to the limitations of Section 1609.1.1.1, residential structures using the provisions of AISI S230.
Designs using NAAMM FP 1001.
Designs using TIA-222 for antenna-supporting structures and antennas, provided the horizontal extent of Topographic Category 2 escarpments in Section 2.6.6.2 of TIA-222 shall be 16 times the height of the escarpment.
Wind tunnel tests in accordance with Chapter 31 of ASCE 7.

The wind speeds in Figures 1609A, 1609B and 1609C are ultimate design wind speeds, V_ult, and shall be converted in accordance with Section 1609.3.1 to nominal design wind speeds, V_asd, when the provisions of the standards referenced in Exceptions 1 through 5 are used.

1609.1.1.1 Applicability

The provisions of ICC 600 are applicable only to buildings located within Exposure B or C as defined in Section 1609.4. The provisions of ICC 600, AF&PA; WFCM and AISI S230 shall not apply to buildings sited on the upper half of an isolated hill, ridge or escarpment meeting the following conditions:

The hill, ridge or escarpment is 60 feet (18 288 mm) or higher if located in Exposure B or 30 feet (9144 mm) or higher if located in Exposure C;
The maximum average slope of the hill exceeds 10 percent; and
The hill, ridge or escarpment is unobstructed upwind by other such topographic features for a distance from the high point of 50 times the height of the hill or 1 mile (1.61 km), whichever is greater.

1609.1.2 Protection of Openings

In wind-borne debris regions, glazing in buildings shall be impact resistant or protected with an impact-resistant covering meeting the requirements of an approved impact-resistant standard or ASTM E 1996 and ASTM E 1886 referenced herein as follows:

Glazed openings located within 30 feet (9144 mm) of grade shall meet the requirements of the large missile test of ASTM E 1996.
Glazed openings located more than 30 feet (9144 mm) above grade shall meet the provisions of the small missile test of ASTM E 1996.

Exceptions:

Wood structural panels with a minimum thickness of ⁷/₁₆ inch (11.1 mm) and maximum panel span of 8 feet (2438 mm) shall be permitted for opening protection in one- and two-story buildings classified as Group R-3 or R-4 occupancy. Panels shall be precut so that they shall be attached to the framing surrounding the opening containing the product with the glazed opening. Panels shall be predrilled as required for the anchorage method and shall be secured with the attachment hardware provided. Attachments shall be designed to resist the components and cladding loads determined in accordance with the provisions of ASCE 7, with corrosion-resistant attachment hardware provided and anchors permanently installed on the building. Attachment in accordance with Table 1609.1.2 with corrosion-resistant attachment hardware provided and anchors permanently installed on the building is permitted for buildings with a mean roof height of 45 feet (13 716 mm) or less where V_asd determined in accordance with Section 1609.3.1 does not exceed 140 mph (63 m/s).
Glazing in Risk Category I buildings as defined in Section 1604.5, including greenhouses that are occupied for growing plants on a production or research basis, without public access shall be permitted to be unprotected.
Glazing in Risk Category II, III or IV buildings located over 60 feet (18 288 mm) above the ground and over 30 feet (9144 mm) above aggregate surface roofs located within 1,500 feet (458 m) of the building shall be permitted to be unprotected.

TABLE 1609.1.2
WIND-BORNE DEBRIS PROTECTION FASTENING SCHEDULE FOR WOOD STRUCTURAL PANELS^{a, b, c, d}
FASTENER TYPE	FASTENER SPACING (inches)
FASTENER TYPE	Panel Span ≤ 4 feet	4 feet < Panel Span ≤ 6 feet	6 feet < Panel Span ≤ 8 feet
No. 8 wood-screw-based anchor with 2-inch embedment length	16	10	8
No. 10 wood-screw-based anchor with 2-inch embedment length	16	12	9
¹/₄-inch diameter lag-screw-based anchor with 2-inch embedment length	16	16	16

For SI: 1 inch = 25.4 mm, 1 foot = 304.8 mm, 1 pound = 4.448 N, 1 mile per hour = 0.447 m/s.

This table is based on 140 mph wind speeds and a 45-foot mean roof height.
Fasteners shall be installed at opposing ends of the wood structural panel. Fasteners shall be located a minimum of 1 inch from the edge of the panel.
Anchors shall penetrate through the exterior wall covering with an embedment length of 2 inches minimum into the building frame. Fasteners shall be located a minimum of 2¹/₂ inches from the edge of concrete block or concrete.
Where panels are attached to masonry or masonry/stucco, they shall be attached using vibration-resistant anchors having a minimum ultimate withdrawal capacity of 1,500 pounds.

1609.1.2.1 Louvers

Louvers protecting intake and exhaust ventilation ducts not assumed to be open that are located within 30 feet (9144 mm) of grade shall meet the requirements of AMCA 540.

1609.1.2.2 Application of ASTM E 1996

The text of Section 6.2.2 of ASTM E 1996 shall be substituted as follows:

6.2.2 Unless otherwise specified, select the wind zone based on the strength design wind speed, V_ult, as follows:

6.2.2.1 Wind Zone 1—130 mph ≤ ultimate design wind speed, V_ult< 140 mph.

6.2.2.2 Wind Zone 2—140 mph ≤ ultimate design wind speed, V_ult< 150 mph at greater than one mile (1.6 km) from the coastline. The coastline shall be measured from the mean high water mark.

6.2.2.3 Wind Zone 3—150 mph (58 m/s) ≤ ultimate design wind speed, V_ult ≤ 160 mph (63 m/s), or 140 mph (54 m/s) ≤ ultimate design wind speed, V_ult ≤ 160 mph (63 m/s) and within one mile(1.6 km) of the coastline. The coastline shall be measured from the mean high water mark.

6.2.2.4 Wind Zone 4— ultimate design wind speed, V_ult >160 mph (63 m/s).

1609.1.2.3 Garage Doors

Garage door glazed opening protection for wind-borne debris shall meet the requirements of an approved impact-resisting standard or ANSI/DASMA 115.

1609.2 Definitions

For the purposes of Section 1609 and as used elsewhere in this code, the following terms are defined in Chapter 2.

HURRICANE-PRONE REGIONS.

WIND-BORNE DEBRIS REGION.

WIND SPEED, V_ult.

WIND SPEED, V_asd.

1609.3 Basic Wind Speed

The ultimate design wind speed, V_ult, in mph, for the determination of the wind loads shall be determined by Figures 1609A, 1609B and 1609C. The ultimate design wind speed, V_ult, for use in the design of Risk Category II buildings and structures shall be obtained from Figure 1609A. The ultimate design wind speed, V_ult, for use in the design of Risk Category III and IV buildings and structures shall be obtained from Figure 1609B. The ultimate design wind speed, V_ult, for use in the design of Risk Category I buildings and structures shall be obtained from Figure 1609C. The ultimate design wind speed, V_ult, for the special wind regions indicated near mountainous terrain and near gorges shall be in accordance with local jurisdiction requirements. The ultimate design wind speeds, V_ult, determined by the local jurisdiction shall be in accordance with Section 26.5.1 of ASCE 7.

In nonhurricane-prone regions, when the ultimate design wind speed, V_ult, is estimated from regional climatic data, the ultimate design wind speed, V_ult, shall be determined in accordance with Section 26.5.3 of ASCE 7.

1609.3.1 Wind Speed Conversion

When required, the ultimate design wind speeds of Figures 1609A, 1609B and 1609C shall be converted to nominal design wind speeds, V_asd, using Table 1609.3.1 or Equation 16-33.

(Equation 16-33)

where:

V_asd	=	nominal design wind speed applicable to methods specified in Exceptions 1 through 5 of Section 1609.1.1.
V_ult	=	ultimate design wind speeds determined from Figures 1609A, 1609B or 1609C.

TABLE 1609.3.1
WIND SPEED CONVERSIONS^{a, b, c}
V_ult	100	110	120	130	140	150	160	170	180	190	200
V_asd	78	85	93	101	108	116	124	132	139	147	155

For SI: 1 mile per hour = 0.44 m/s.

Linear interpolation is permitted.
V_asd= nominal design wind speed applicable to methods specified in Exceptions 1 through 5 of Section 1609.1.1.
V_ult= ultimate design wind speeds determined from Figures 1609A, 1609B, or 1609C.

1609.4 Exposure Category

For each wind direction considered, an exposure category that adequately reflects the characteristics of ground surface irregularities shall be determined for the site at which the building or structure is to be constructed. Account shall be taken of variations in ground surface roughness that arise from natural topography and vegetation as well as from constructed features.

1609.4.1 Wind Directions and Sectors

For each selected wind direction at which the wind loads are to be evaluated, the exposure of the building or structure shall be determined for the two upwind sectors extending 45 degrees (0.79 rad) either side of the selected wind direction. The exposures in these two sectors shall be determined in accordance with Sections 1609.4.2 and 1609.4.3 and the exposure resulting in the highest wind loads shall be used to represent winds from that direction.

1609.4.2 Surface Roughness Categories

A ground surface roughness within each 45-degree (0.79 rad) sector shall be determined for a distance upwind of the site as defined in Section 1609.4.3 from the categories defined below, for the purpose of assigning an exposure category as defined in Section 1609.4.3.

Surface Roughness B.
Urban and suburban areas, wooded areas or other terrain with numerous closely spaced obstructions having the size of single-family dwellings or larger.

Surface Roughness C.
Open terrain with scattered obstructions having heights generally less than 30 feet (9144 mm). This category includes flat open country, and grasslands.

Surface Roughness D.
Flat, unobstructed areas and water surfaces. This category includes smooth mud flats, salt flats and unbroken ice.

1609.4.3 Exposure Categories

An exposure category shall be determined in accordance with the following:

Exposure B. For buildings with a mean roof height of less than or equal to 30 feet (9144 mm), Exposure B shall apply where the ground surface roughness, as defined by Surface Roughness B, prevails in the upwind direction for a distance of at least 1,500 feet (457 m). For buildings with a mean roof height greater than 30 feet (9144 mm), Exposure B shall apply where Surface Roughness B prevails in the upwind direction for a distance of at least 2,600 feet (792 m) or 20 times the height of the building, whichever is greater.

Exposure C. Exposure C shall apply for all cases where Exposures B or D do not apply.

Exposure D. Exposure D shall apply where the ground surface roughness, as defined by Surface Roughness D, prevails in the upwind direction for a distance of at least 5,000 feet (1524 m) or 20 times the height of the building, whichever is greater. Exposure D shall also apply where the ground surface roughness immediately upwind of the site is B or C, and the site is within a distance of 600 feet (183 m) or 20 times the building height, whichever is greater, from an exposure D condition as defined in the previous sentence.

1609.5 Roof Systems

Roof systems shall be designed and constructed in accordance with Sections 1609.5.1 through 1609.5.3, as applicable.

1609.5.1 Roof Deck

The roof deck shall be designed to withstand the wind pressures determined in accordance with ASCE 7.

1609.5.2 Roof Coverings

Roof coverings shall comply with Section 1609.5.1.

Exception: Rigid tile roof coverings that are air permeable and installed over a roof deck complying with Section 1609.5.1 are permitted to be designed in accordance with Section 1609.5.3.

Asphalt shingles installed over a roof deck complying with Section 1609.5.1 shall comply with the wind-resistance requirements of Section 1507.2.7.1.

1609.5.3 Rigid Tile

Wind loads on rigid tile roof coverings shall be determined in accordance with the following equation:

(Equation 16-34)

For SI:

where:

b	=	Exposed width, feet (mm) of the roof tile.
C_L	=	Lift coefficient. The lift coefficient for concrete and clay tile shall be 0.2 or shall be determined by test in accordance with Section 1711.2.
GC_p	=	Roof pressure coefficient for each applicable roof zone determined from Chapter 30 of ASCE 7. Roof coefficients shall not be adjusted for internal pressure.
L	=	Length, feet (mm) of the roof tile.
L_a	=	Moment arm, feet (mm) from the axis of rotation to the point of uplift on the roof tile. The point of uplift shall be taken at 0.76L from the head of the tile and the middle of the exposed width. For roof tiles with nails or screws (with or without a tail clip), the axis of rotation shall be taken as the head of the tile for direct deck application or as the top edge of the batten for battened applications. For roof tiles fastened only by a nail or screw along the side of the tile, the axis of rotation shall be determined by testing. For roof tiles installed with battens and fastened only by a clip near the tail of the tile, the moment arm shall be determined about the top edge of the batten with consideration given for the point of rotation of the tiles based on straight bond or broken bond and the tile profile.
M_a	=	Aerodynamic uplift moment, feet-pounds (N-mm) acting to raise the tail of the tile.
q_h	=	Wind velocity pressure, psf (kN/m²) determined from Section 27.3.2 of ASCE 7.

Concrete and clay roof tiles complying with the following limitations shall be designed to withstand the aerodynamic uplift moment as determined by this section.

The roof tiles shall be either loose laid on battens, mechanically fastened, mortar set or adhesive set.
The roof tiles shall be installed on solid sheathing which has been designed as components and cladding.
An underlayment shall be installed in accordance with Chapter 15.
The tile shall be single lapped interlocking with a minimum head lap of not less than 2 inches (51 mm).
The length of the tile shall be between 1.0 and 1.75 feet (305 mm and 533 mm).
The exposed width of the tile shall be between 0.67 and 1.25 feet (204 mm and 381 mm).
The maximum thickness of the tail of the tile shall not exceed 1.3 inches (33 mm).
Roof tiles using mortar set or adhesive set systems shall have at least two-thirds of the tile's area free of mortar or adhesive contact.

1609.6 Alternate All-Heights Method

The alternate wind design provisions in this section are simplifications of the ASCE 7 Directional Procedure.

1609.6.1 Scope

As an alternative to ASCE 7 Chapters 27 and 30, the following provisions are permitted to be used to determine the wind effects on regularly shaped buildings, or other structures that are regularly shaped, which meet all of the following conditions:

The building or other structure is less than or equal to 75 feet (22 860 mm) in height with a height-to-least-width ratio of 4 or less, or the building or other structure has a fundamental frequency greater than or equal to 1 hertz.
The building or other structure is not sensitive to dynamic effects.
The building or other structure is not located on a site for which channeling effects or buffeting in the wake of upwind obstructions warrant special consideration.
The building shall meet the requirements of a simple diaphragm building as defined in ASCE 7 Section 26.2, where wind loads are only transmitted to the main windforce-resisting system (MWFRS) at the diaphragms.
For open buildings, multispan gable roofs, stepped roofs, sawtooth roofs, domed roofs, roofs with slopes greater than 45 degrees (0.79 rad), solid free-standing walls and solid signs, and rooftop equipment, apply ASCE 7 provisions.

1609.6.1.1 Modifications

The following modifications shall be made to certain subsections in ASCE 7: in Section 1609.6.2, symbols and notations that are specific to this section are used in conjunction with the symbols and notations in ASCE 7 Section 26.3.

1609.6.2 Symbols and Notations

Coefficients and variables used in the alternative all-heights method equations are as follows:

C_net	=	Net-pressure coefficient based on K_d [(G) (C_p) - (GC_pi)], in accordance with Table 1609.6.2.
G	=	Gust effect factor for rigid structures in accordance with ASCE 7 Section 26.9.1.
K_d	=	Wind directionality factor in accordance with ASCE 7 Table 26-6.
P_net	=	Design wind pressure to be used in determination of wind loads on buildings or other structures or their components and cladding, in psf (kN/m²).

TABLE 1609.6.2
NET PRESSURE COEFFICIENTS, C_net^{a, b}
STRUCTURE OR PART THEREOF	DESCRIPTION		C_net FACTOR
1. Main windforce- resisting frames and systems	Walls:		Enclosed		Partially enclosed
	Walls:		+ Internal pressure	- Internal pressure	+ Internal pressure	- Internal pressure
	Windward wall		0.43	0.73	0.11	1.05
	Leeward wall		-0.51	-0.21	-0.83	0.11
	Sidewall		-0.66	-0.35	-0.97	-0.04
	Parapet wall	Windward	1.28		1.28
	Parapet wall	Leeward	-0.85		-0.85
	Roofs:		Enclosed		Partially enclosed
	Wind perpendicular to ridge		+ Internal pressure	- Internal pressure	+ Internal pressure	- Internal pressure
	Leeward roof or flat roof		-0.66	-0.35	-0.97	-0.04
	Windward roof slopes:
	Slope < 2:12 (10°)	Condition 1	-1.09	-0.79	-1.41	-0.47
	Slope < 2:12 (10°)	Condition 2	-0.28	0.02	-0.60	0.34
	Slope = 4:12 (18°)	Condition 1	-0.73	-0.42	-1.04	-0.11
	Slope = 4:12 (18°)	Condition 2	-0.05	0.25	-0.37	0.57
	Slope = 5:12 (23°)	Condition 1	-0.58	-0.28	-0.90	0.04
	Slope = 5:12 (23°)	Condition 2	0.03	0.34	-0.29	0.65
	Slope = 6:12 (27°)	Condition 1	-0.47	-0.16	-0.78	0.15
	Slope = 6:12 (27°)	Condition 2	0.06	0.37	-0.25	0.68
	Slope = 7:12 (30°)	Condition 1	-0.37	-0.06	-0.68	0.25
	Slope = 7:12 (30°)	Condition 2	0.07	0.37	-0.25	0.69
	Slope = 9:12 (37°)	Condition 1	-0.27	0.04	-0.58	0.35
	Slope = 9:12 (37°)	Condition 2	0.14	0.44	-0.18	0.76
	Slope = 12:12 (45°)		0.14	0.44	-0.18	0.76
	Wind parallel to ridge and flat roofs		-1.09	-0.79	-1.41	-0.47
	Nonbuilding Structures: Chimneys, Tanks and Similar Structures:
				h/D
				1	7	25
	Square (Wind normal to face)			0.99	1.07	1.53
	Square (Wind on diagonal)			0.77	0.84	1.15
	Hexagonal or Octagonal			0.81	0.97	1.13
	Round			0.65	0.81	0.97
	Open signs and lattice frameworks			Ratio of solid to gross area
				< 0.1	0.1 to 0.29	0.3 to 0.7
	Flat			1.45	1.30	1.16
	Round			0.87	0.94	1.08
2. Components and cladding not in areas of discontinuity— roofs and overhangs	Roof elements and slopes		Enclosed		Partially enclosed
	Gable of hipped configurations (Zone 1)
	Flat < Slope < 6:12 (27°) See ASCE 7 Figure 30.4-2B Zone 1
	Positive	10 square feet or less	0.58		0.89
	Positive	100 square feet or more	0.41		0.72
	Negative	10 square feet or less	-1.00		-1.32
	Negative	100 square feet or more	-0.92		-1.23
	Overhang: Flat < Slope < 6:12 (27°) See ASCE 7 Figure 30.4-2A Zone 1
	Negative	10 square feet or less	-1.45
		100 square feet or more	-1.36
		500 square feet or more	-0.94
	6:12 (27°) < Slope < 12:12 (45°) See ASCE 7 Figure 30.4-2C Zone 1
	Positive	10 square feet or less	0.92		1.23
	Positive	100 square feet or more	0.83		1.15
	Negative	10 square feet or less	-1.00		-1.32
	Negative	100 square feet or more	-0.83		-1.15
	Monosloped configurations (Zone 1)		Enclosed		Partially enclosed
	Flat < Slope < 7:12 (30°) See ASCE 7 Figure 30.4-5B Zone 1
	Positive	10 square feet or less	0.49		0.81
	Positive	100 square feet or more	0.41		0.72
	Negative	10 square feet or less	-1.26		-1.57
	Negative	100 square feet or more	-1.09		-1.40
	Tall flat-topped roofs h > 60 feet		Enclosed		Partially enclosed
	Flat < Slope < 2:12 (10°) (Zone 1) See ASCE 7 Figure 30.8-1 Zone 1
	Negative	10 square feet or less	-1.34		-1.66
	Negative	500 square feet or more	-0.92		-1.23
3. Components and cladding in areas of discontinuities— roofs and overhangs	Gable or hipped configurations at ridges, eaves and rakes (Zone 2)
	Flat < Slope < 6:12 (27°) See ASCE 7 Figure 30.4-2B Zone 2
	Positive	10 square feet or less	0.58		0.89
	Positive	100 square feet or more	0.41		0.72
	Negative	10 square feet or less	-1.68		-2.00
	Negative	100 square feet or more	-1.17		-1.49
	Overhang for Slope Flat < Slope < 6:12 (27°) See ASCE 7 Figure 30.4-2B Zone 2
	Negative	10 square feet or less	-1.87
	Negative	100 square feet or more	-1.87
	6:12 (27°) < Slope < 12:12 (45°) Figure 30.4-2C		Enclosed		Partially enclosed
	Positive	10 square feet or less	0.92		1.23
	Positive	100 square feet or more	0.83		1.15
	Negative	10 square feet or less	-1.17		-1.49
	Negative	100 square feet or more	-1.00		-1.32
	Overhang for 6:12 (27°) < Slope < 12:12 (45°) See ASCE 7 Figure 30.4-2C Zone 2
	Negative	10 square feet or less	-1.70
	Negative	500 square feet or more	-1.53
	Monosloped configurations at ridges, eaves and rakes (Zone 2)
	Flat < Slope < 7:12 (30°) See ASCE 7 Figure 30.4-5B Zone 2
	Positive	10 square feet or less	0.49		0.81
	Positive	100 square feet or more	0.41		0.72
	Negative	10 square feet or less	-1.51		-1.83
	Negative	100 square feet or more	-1.43		-1.74
	Tall flat topped roofs h > 60 feet		Enclosed		Partially enclosed
	Flat < Slope < 2:12 (10°) (Zone 2) See ASCE 7 Figure 30.8-1 Zone 2
	Negative	10 square feet or less	-2.11		-2.42
	Negative	500 square feet or more	-1.51		-1.83
	Gable or hipped configurations at corners (Zone 3) See ASCE 7 Figure 30.4-2B Zone 3
	Flat < Slope < 6:12 (27°)		Enclosed		Partially enclosed
	Positive	10 square feet or less	0.58		0.89
	Positive	100 square feet or more	0.41		0.72
	Negative	10 square feet or less	-2.53		-2.85
	Negative	100 square feet or more	-1.85		-2.17
	Overhang for Slope Flat < Slope < 6:12 (27°) See ASCE 7 Figure 30.4-2B Zone 3
	Negative	10 square feet or less	-3.15
	Negative	100 square feet or more	-2.13
	6:12 (27°) < 12:12 (45°) See ASCE 7 Figure 30.4-2C Zone 3
	Positive	10 square feet or less	0.92		1.23
	Positive	100 square feet or more	0.83		1.15
	Negative	10 square feet or less	-1.17		-1.49
	Negative	100 square feet or more	-1.00		-1.32
	Overhang for 6:12 (27°) < Slope < 12:12 (45°)		Enclosed		Partially enclosed
	Negative	10 square feet or less	-1.70
	Negative	100 square feet or more	-1.53
	Monosloped Configurations at corners (Zone 3) See ASCE 7 Figure 30.4-5B Zone 3
	Flat < Slope < 7:12 (30°)
	Positive	10 square feet or less	0.49		0.81
	Positive	100 square feet or more	0.41		0.72
	Negative	10 square feet or less	-2.62		-2.93
	Negative	100 square feet or more	-1.85		-2.17
	Tall flat topped roofs h > 60 feet		Enclosed		Partially enclosed
	Flat < Slope < 2:12 (10°) (Zone 3) See ASCE 7 Figure 30.8-1 Zone 3
	Negative	10 square feet or less	-2.87		-3.19
	Negative	500 square feet or more	-2.11		-2.42
4. Components and cladding not in areas of discontinuity— walls andparapets	Wall Elements: h ≤ 60 feet (Zone 4) ASCE 7 Figure 30.4-1		Enclosed		Partially enclosed
	Positive	10 square feet or less	1.00		1.32
	Positive	500 square feet or more	0.75		1.06
	Negative	10 square feet or less	-1.09		-1.40
	Negative	500 square feet or more	-0.83		-1.15
	Wall Elements: h > 60 feet (Zone 4) ASCE 7 Figure 30.6-1
	Positive	20 square feet or less	0.92		1.23
	Positive	500 square feet or more	0.66		0.98
	Negative	20 square feet or less	-0.92		-1.23
	Negative	500 square feet or more	-0.75		-1.06
	Parapet Walls
	Positive		2.87		3.19
	Negative		-1.68		-2.00
5. Components and cladding in areas of discontinuity—walls and parapets	Wall elements: h ≤ 60 feet (Zone 5) Figure 30.4-1		Enclosed		Partially enclosed
	Positive	10 square feet or less	1.00		1.32
	Positive	500 square feet or more	0.75		1.06
	Negative	10 square feet or less	-1.34		-1.66
	Negative	500 square feet or more	-0.83		-1.15
	Wall elements: h > 60 feet (Zone 4) ASCE 7 Figure 30.6-1
	Positive	20 square feet or less	0.92		1.23
		500 square feet or more	0.66		0.98
	Negative	20 square feet or less	-1.68		-2.00
	Negative	500 square feet or more	-1.00		-1.32
	Parapet walls
	Positive		3.64		3.95
	Negative		-2.45		-2.76

For SI: 1 foot = 304.8 mm, 1 square foot = 0.0929m², 1 degree = 0.0175 rad.

Linear interpolation between values in the table is permitted.
Some C_net values have been grouped together. Less conservative results may be obtained by applying ASCE 7 provisions.

1609.6.3 Design Equations

When using the alternative all-heights method, the MWFRS, and components and cladding of every structure shall be designed to resist the effects of wind pressures on the building envelope in accordance with Equation 16-35.

P_net= 0.00256V²K_zC_netK_zt

(Equation 16-35)

Design wind forces for the MWFRS shall not be less than 16 psf (0.77 kN/m²) multiplied by the area of the structure projected on a plane normal to the assumed wind direction (see ASCE 7 Section 27.4.7 for criteria). Design net wind pressure for components and cladding shall not be less than 16 psf (0.77 kN/m²) acting in either direction normal to the surface.

1609.6.4 Design Procedure

The MWFRS and the components and cladding of every building or other structure shall be designed for the pressures calculated using Equation 16-35.

1609.6.4.1 Main Windforce-Resisting Systems

The MWFRS shall be investigated for the torsional effects identified in ASCE 7 Figure 27.4-8.

1609.6.4.2 Determination of KZ and KZT

Velocity pressure exposure coefficient, K_z, shall be determined in accordance with ASCE 7 Section 27.3.1 and the topographic factor, K_zt, shall be determined in accordance with ASCE 7 Section 26.8.

For the windward side of a structure, K_zt and K_z shall be based on height z.
For leeward and sidewalls, and for windward and leeward roofs, K_zt and K_z shall be based on mean roof height h.

1609.6.4.3 Determination of Net Pressure Coefficients, Cnet

For the design of the MWFRS and for components and cladding, the sum of the internal and external net pressure shall be based on the net pressure coefficient, C_net.

The pressure coefficient, C_net_, for walls and roofs shall be determined from Table 1609.6.2.
Where C_net has more than one value, the more severe wind load condition shall be used for design.

1609.6.4.4 Application of Wind Pressures

When using the alternative all-heights method, wind pressures shall be applied simultaneously on, and in a direction normal to, all building envelope wall and roof surfaces.

1609.6.4.4.1 Components and Cladding

Wind pressure for each component or cladding element is applied as follows using C_net values based on the effective wind area, A, contained within the zones in areas of discontinuity of width and/or length "a," "2a" or "4a" at: corners of roofs and walls; edge strips for ridges, rakes and eaves; or field areas on walls or roofs as indicated in figures in tables in ASCE 7 as referenced in Table 1609.6.2 in accordance with the following:

Calculated pressures at local discontinuities acting over specific edge strips or corner boundary areas.
Include "field" (Zone 1, 2 or 4, as applicable) pressures applied to areas beyond the boundaries of the areas of discontinuity.
Where applicable, the calculated pressures at discontinuities (Zone 2 or 3) shall be combined with design pressures that apply specifically on rakes or eave overhangs.

Section 1610 Soil Lateral Loads

1610.1 General

Foundation walls and retaining walls shall be designed to resist lateral soil loads. Soil loads specified in Table 1610.1 shall be used as the minimum design lateral soil loads unless determined otherwise by a geotechnical investigation in accordance with Section 1803. Foundation walls and other walls in which horizontal movement is restricted at the top shall be designed for at-rest pressure. Retaining walls free to move and rotate at the top shall be permitted to be designed for active pressure. Design lateral pressure from surcharge loads shall be added to the lateral earth pressure load. Design lateral pressure shall be increased if soils at the site are expansive. Foundation walls shall be designed to support the weight of the full hydrostatic pressure of undrained backfill unless a drainage system is installed in accordance with Sections 1805.4.2 and 1805.4.3.

Exception: Foundation walls extending not more than 8 feet (2438 mm) below grade and laterally supported at the top by flexible diaphragms shall be permitted to be designed for active pressure.

TABLE 1610.1
LATERAL SOIL LOAD
DESCRIPTION OF BACKFILL MATERIAL^c	UNIFIED SOIL CLASSIFICATION	DESIGN LATERAL SOIL LOAD^a (pound per square foot per foot of depth)
DESCRIPTION OF BACKFILL MATERIAL^c	UNIFIED SOIL CLASSIFICATION	Active pressure	At-rest pressure
Well-graded, clean gravels; gravel-sand mixes	GW	30	60
Poorly graded clean gravels; gravel-sand mixes	GP	30	60
Silty gravels, poorly graded gravel-sand mixes	GM	40	60
Clayey gravels, poorly graded gravel-and-clay mixes	GC	45	60
Well-graded, clean sands; gravelly sand mixes	SW	30	60
Poorly graded clean sands; sand-gravel mixes	SP	30	60
Silty sands, poorly graded sand-silt mixes	SM	45	60
Sand-silt clay mix with plastic fines	SM-SC	45	100
Clayey sands, poorly graded sand-clay mixes	SC	60	100
Inorganic silts and clayey silts	ML	45	100
Mixture of inorganic silt and clay	ML-CL	60	100
Inorganic clays of low to medium plasticity	CL	60	100
Organic silts and silt clays, low plasticity	OL	Note b	Note b
Inorganic clayey silts, elastic silts	MH	Note b	Note b
Inorganic clays of high plasticity	CH	Note b	Note b
Organic clays and silty clays	OH	Note b	Note b

For SI: 1 pound per square foot per foot of depth = 0.157 kPa/m, 1 foot = 304.8 mm.

Design lateral soil loads are given for moist conditions for the specified soils at their optimum densities. Actual field conditions shall govern. Submerged or saturated soil pressures shall include the weight of the buoyant soil plus the hydrostatic loads.
Unsuitable as backfill material.
The definition and classification of soil materials shall be in accordance with ASTM D 2487.

Section 1611 Rain Loads

1611.1 Design Rain Loads

Each portion of a roof shall be designed to sustain the load of rainwater that will accumulate on it if the primary drainage system for that portion is blocked plus the uniform load caused by water that rises above the inlet of the secondary drainage system at its design flow. The design rainfall shall be based on the 100-year hourly rainfall rate indicated in Figure 1611.1 or on other rainfall rates determined from approved local weather data.

R = 5.2(d_s + d_h)

(Equation 16-36)

For SI: R = 0.0098(d_s + d_h)

where:

d_h	=	Additional depth of water on the undeflected roof above the inlet of secondary drainage system at its design flow (i.e., the hydraulic head), in inches (mm).
d_s	=	Depth of water on the undeflected roof up to the inlet of secondary drainage system when the primary drainage system is blocked (i.e., the static head), in inches (mm).
R	=	Rain load on the undeflected roof, in psf (kN/m₂). When the phrase "undeflected roof" is used, deflections from loads (including dead loads) shall not be considered when determining the amount of rain on the roof.