Chapter 18 Soils and Foundations

The provisions of this chapter shall apply to building and foundation systems.

Geotechnical investigations shall be conducted in accordance with Sections 1803.3 through 1803.5.

Exception: The building official shall be permitted to waive the requirement for a geotechnical investigation where satisfactory data from adjacent areas is available that demonstrates an investigation is not necessary for any of the conditions in Sections 1803.5.1 through 1803.5.6 and Sections 1803.5.10 and 1803.5.11.

In areas likely to have expansive soil, the building official shall require soil tests to determine where such soils do exist.

Soils meeting all four of the following provisions shall be considered to be expansive, except that tests to show compliance with Items 1, 2 and 3 shall not be required if the test prescribed in Item 4 is conducted:

1. Plasticity index (PI) of 15 or greater, determined in accordance with ASTM D4318.
2. More than 10 percent of the soil particles pass a No. 200 sieve (75 µm), determined in accordance with ASTM D422.
3. More than 10 percent of the soil particles are less than 5 micrometers in size, determined in accordance with ASTM D422.
4. Expansion index greater than 20, determined in accordance with ASTM D4829.

A subsurface soil investigation shall be performed to determine whether the existing ground water table is above or within 5 feet (1524 mm) below the elevation of the lowest floor level where such floor is located below the finished ground level adjacent to the foundation.

Exception: A subsurface soil investigation to determine the location of the ground water table shall not be required where waterproofing is provided in accordance with Section 1805.

Where deep foundations will be used, a geotechnical investigation shall be conducted and shall include all of the following, unless sufficient data on which to base the design and installation is otherwise available:

1. Recommended deep foundation types and installed capacities.
2. Recommended center-to-center spacing of deep foundation elements.
3. Driving criteria.
4. Installation procedures.
5. Field inspection and reporting procedures (to include procedures for verification of the installed bearing capacity where required).
6. Load test requirements.
7. Suitability of deep foundation materials for the intended environment.
8. Designation of bearing stratum or strata.
9. Reductions for group action, where necessary.

Where shallow foundations will bear on compacted fill material more than 12 inches (305 mm) in depth, a geotechnical investigation shall be conducted and shall include all of the following:

1. Specifications for the preparation of the site prior to placement of compacted fill material.
2. Specifications for material to be used as compacted fill.
3. Test methods to be used to determine the maximum dry density and optimum moisture content of the material to be used as compacted fill.
4. Maximum allowable thickness of each lift of compacted fill material.
5. Field test method for determining the in-place dry density of the compacted fill.
6. Minimum acceptable in-place dry density expressed as a percentage of the maximum dry density determined in accordance with Item 3.
7. Number and frequency of field tests required to determine compliance with Item 6.

Where shallow foundations will bear on controlled low-strength material (CLSM), a geotechnical investigation shall be conducted and shall include all of the following:

1. Specifications for the preparation of the site prior to placement of the CLSM.
2. Specifications for the CLSM.
3. Laboratory or field test method(s) to be used to determine the compressive strength or bearing capacity of the CLSM.
4. Test methods for determining the acceptance of the CLSM in the field.
5. Number and frequency of field tests required to determine compliance with Item 4.

For structures assigned to Seismic Design Category C, D, E or F, a geotechnical investigation shall be conducted, and shall include an evaluation of all of the following potential geologic and seismic hazards:

1. Slope instability.
2. Liquefaction.
3. Total and differential settlement.
4. Surface displacement due to faulting or seismically induced lateral spreading or lateral flow.

For structures assigned to Seismic Design Category D, E or F, the geotechnical investigation required by Section 1803.5.11 shall include all of the following as applicable:

1. The determination of dynamic seismic lateral earth pressures on foundation walls and retaining walls supporting more than 6 feet (1.83 m) of backfill height due to design earthquake ground motions.

2. The potential for liquefaction and soil strength loss evaluated for site peak ground acceleration, earthquake magnitude and source characteristics consistent with the maximum considered earthquake ground motions. Peak ground acceleration shall be determined based on one of the following:

   1. 2.1. A site-specific study in accordance with Chapter 21 of ASCE 7.
   2. 2.2. In accordance with Section 11.8.3 of ASCE 7.

3. An assessment of potential consequences of liquefaction and soil strength loss including, but not limited to, the following:

   1. 3.1. Estimation of total and differential settlement.
   2. 3.2. Lateral soil movement.
   3. 3.3. Lateral soil loads on foundations.
   4. 3.4. Reduction in foundation soil-bearing capacity and lateral soil reaction.
   5. 3.5. Soil downdrag and reduction in axial and lateral soil reaction for pile foundations.
   6. 3.6. Increases in soil lateral pressures on retaining walls.
   7. 3.7. Flotation of buried structures.

4. Discussion of mitigation measures such as, but not limited to, the following:

   1. 4.1. Selection of appropriate foundation type and depths.
   2. 4.2. Selection of appropriate structural systems to accommodate anticipated displacements and forces.
   3. 4.3. Ground stabilization.
   4. 4.4. Any combination of these measures and how they shall be considered in the design of the structure.

Where geotechnical investigations are required, a written report of the investigations shall be submitted to the building official by the permit applicant at the time of permit application. This geotechnical report shall include, but need not be limited to, the following information:

1. A plot showing the location of the soil investigations.
2. A complete record of the soil boring and penetration test logs and soil samples.
3. A record of the soil profile.
4. Elevation of the water table, if encountered.
5. Recommendations for foundation type and design criteria, including but not limited to: bearing capacity of natural or compacted soil; provisions to mitigate the effects of expansive soils; mitigation of the effects of liquefaction, differential settlement and varying soil strength; and the effects of adjacent loads.
6. Expected total and differential settlement.
7. Deep foundation information in accordance with Section 1803.5.5.
8. Special design and construction provisions for foundations of structures founded on expansive soils, as necessary.
9. Compacted fill material properties and testing in accordance with Section 1803.5.8.
10. Controlled low-strength material properties and testing in accordance with Section 1803.5.9.

The excavation outside the foundation shall be backfilled with soil that is free of organic material, construction debris, cobbles and boulders or with a controlled low-strength material (CLSM). The backfill shall be placed in lifts and compacted in a manner that does not damage the foundation or the waterproofing or dampproofing material.

Exception: CLSM need not be compacted.

In flood hazard areas established in Section 1612.3, grading, fill, or both, shall not be approved:

1. Unless such fill is placed, compacted and sloped to minimize shifting, slumping and erosion during the rise and fall of flood water and, as applicable, wave action.
2. In floodways, unless it has been demonstrated through hydrologic and hydraulic analyses performed by a registered design professional in accordance with standard engineering practice that the proposed grading or fill, or both, will not result in any increase in flood levels during the occurrence of the design flood.
3. In coastal high hazard areas, unless such fill is conducted or placed to avoid diversion of water and waves toward any building or structure.
4. Where design flood elevations are specified but floodways have not been designated, unless it has been demonstrated that the cumulative effect of the proposed flood hazard area encroachment, when combined with all other existing and anticipated flood hazard area encroachment, will not increase the design flood elevation more than 1 foot (305 mm) at any point.

Where shallow foundations will bear on compacted fill material, the compacted fill shall comply with the provisions of an approved geotechnical report, as set forth in Section 1803.

Exception: Compacted fill material 12 inches (305 mm) in depth or less need not comply with an approved report, provided that the in-place dry density is not less than 90 percent of the maximum dry density at optimum moisture content determined in accordance with ASTM D1557. The compaction shall be verified by special inspection in accordance with Section 1705.6.

Walls or portions thereof that retain earth and enclose interior spaces and floors below grade shall be waterproofed and dampproofed in accordance with this section, with the exception of those spaces containing groups other than residential and institutional where such omission is not detrimental to the building or occupancy.

Ventilation for crawl spaces shall comply with Section 1203.4.

Dampproofing materials for floors shall be installed between the floor and the base course required by Section 1805.4.1, except where a separate floor is provided above a concrete slab.

Where installed beneath the slab, dampproofing shall consist of not less than 6-mil (0.006 inch; 0.152 mm) polyethylene with joints lapped not less than 6 inches (152 mm), or other approved methods or materials. Where permitted to be installed on top of the slab, dampproofing shall consist of mopped-on bitumen, not less than 4-mil (0.004 inch; 0.102 mm) polyethylene, or other approved methods or materials. Joints in the membrane shall be lapped and sealed in accordance with the manufacturer's installation instructions.

Dampproofing materials for walls shall be installed on the exterior surface of the wall, and shall extend from the top of the footing to above ground level.

Dampproofing shall consist of a bituminous material, 3 pounds per square yard (16 N/m²) of acrylic modified cement, ¹/₈ inch (3.2 mm) coat of surface-bonding mortar complying with ASTM C887, any of the materials permitted for waterproofing by Section 1805.3.2 or other approved methods or materials.

Prior to application of dampproofing materials on concrete walls, holes and recesses resulting from the removal of form ties shall be sealed with a bituminous material or other approved methods or materials. Unit masonry walls shall be parged on the exterior surface below ground level with not less than 3/8 inch (9.5 mm) of Portland cement mortar. The parging shall be coved at the footing.

Exception: Parging of unit masonry walls is not required where a material is approved for direct application to the masonry.

Floors required to be waterproofed shall be of concrete and designed and constructed to withstand the hydrostatic pressures to which the floors will be subjected.

Waterproofing shall be accomplished by placing a membrane of rubberized asphalt, butyl rubber, fully adhered/fully bonded HDPE or polyolefin composite membrane or not less than 6-mil [0.006 inch (0.152 mm)] polyvinyl chloride with joints lapped not less than 6 inches (152 mm) or other approved materials under the slab. Joints in the membrane shall be lapped and sealed in accordance with the manufacturer's installation instructions.

Walls required to be waterproofed shall be of concrete or masonry and shall be designed and constructed to withstand the hydrostatic pressures and other lateral loads to which the walls will be subjected.

Waterproofing shall be applied from the bottom of the wall to not less than 12 inches (305 mm) above the maximum elevation of the ground water table. The remainder of the wall shall be dampproofed in accordance with Section 1805.2.2. Waterproofing shall consist of two-ply hot-mopped felts, not less than 6-mil (0.006 inch; 0.152 mm) polyvinyl chloride, 40-mil (0.040 inch; 1.02 mm) polymer-modified asphalt, 6-mil (0.006 inch; 0.152 mm) polyethylene or other approved methods or materials capable of bridging nonstructural cracks. Joints in the membrane shall be lapped and sealed in accordance with the manufacturer's installation instructions.

Floors of basements, except as provided for in Section 1805.1.1, shall be placed over a floor base course not less than 4 inches (102 mm) in thickness that consists of gravel or crushed stone containing not more than 10 percent of material that passes through a No. 4 (4.75 mm) sieve.

Exception: Where a site is located in well-drained gravel or sand/gravel mixture soils, a floor base course is not required.

Concrete and masonry foundation walls shall be designed in accordance with Chapter 19 or 21, as applicable.

Exception: Concrete and masonry foundation walls shall be permitted to be designed and constructed in accordance with Section 1807.1.6.

Concrete foundation walls shall comply with the following:

1. The thickness shall comply with the requirements of Table 1807.1.6.2.
2. The size and spacing of vertical reinforcement shown in Table 1807.1.6.2 are based on the use of reinforcement with a minimum yield strength of 60,000 pounds per square inch (psi) (414 MPa). Vertical reinforcement with a minimum yield strength of 40,000 psi (276 MPa) or 50,000 psi (345 MPa) shall be permitted, provided that the same size bar is used and the spacing shown in the table is reduced by multiplying the spacing by 0.67 or 0.83, respectively.
3. Vertical reinforcement, where required, shall be placed nearest the inside face of the wall a distance, d, from the outside face (soil face) of the wall. The distance, d, is equal to the wall thickness, t, minus 1.25 inches (32 mm) plus one-half the bar diameter, d_b, [d = t - (1.25 + d_b / 2)]. The reinforcement shall be placed within a tolerance of ± ³/₈ inch (9.5 mm) where d is less than or equal to 8 inches (203 mm) or ± ¹/₂ inch (12.7 mm) where d is greater than 8 inches (203 mm).
4. In lieu of the reinforcement shown in Table 1807.1.6.2, smaller reinforcing bar sizes with closer spacings that provide an equivalent cross-sectional area of reinforcement per unit length shall be permitted.
5. Concrete cover for reinforcement measured from the inside face of the wall shall be not less than ³/₄ inch (19.1 mm). Concrete cover for reinforcement measured from the outside face of the wall shall be not less than 1¹/₂ inches (38 mm) for No. 5 bars and smaller, and not less than 2 inches (51 mm) for larger bars.
6. Concrete shall have a specified compressive strength, f '_c, of not less than 2,500 psi (17.2 MPa).
7. The unfactored axial load per linear foot of wall shall not exceed 1.2 t f '_c where t is the specified wall thickness in inches.

Based on the seismic design category assigned to the structure in accordance with Section 1613, concrete foundation walls designed using Table 1807.1.6.2 shall be subject to the following limitations:

1. Seismic Design Categories A and B. Not less than one No. 5 bar shall be provided around window, door and similar sized openings. The bar shall be anchored to develop f_y in tension at the corners of openings.
2. Seismic Design Categories C, D, E and F. Tables shall not be used except as allowed for plain concrete members in Section 1905.1.7.

Masonry foundation walls shall comply with the following:

1. The thickness shall comply with the requirements of Table 1807.1.6.3(1) for plain masonry walls or Table 1807.1.6.3(2), 1807.1.6.3(3) or 1807.1.6.3(4) for masonry walls with reinforcement.
2. Vertical reinforcement shall have a minimum yield strength of 60,000 psi (414 MPa).
3. The specified location of the reinforcement shall equal or exceed the effective depth distance, d, noted in Tables 1807.1.6.3(2), 1807.1.6.3(3) and 1807.1.6.3(4) and shall be measured from the face of the exterior (soil) side of the wall to the center of the vertical reinforcement. The reinforcement shall be placed within the tolerances specified in TMS 602, Article 3.4.B.11, of the specified location.
4. Grout shall comply with Section 2103.3.
5. Concrete masonry units shall comply with ASTM C90.
6. Clay masonry units shall comply with ASTM C652 for hollow brick, except compliance with ASTM C62 or ASTM C216 shall be permitted where solid masonry units are installed in accordance with Table 1807.1.6.3(1) for plain masonry.
7. Masonry units shall be laid in running bond and installed with Type M or S mortar in accordance with Section 2103.2.1.
8. The unfactored axial load per linear foot of wall shall not exceed 1.2 t f '_m where t is the specified wall thickness in inches and f '_m is the specified compressive strength of masonry in pounds per square inch.
9. Not less than 4 inches (102 mm) of solid masonry shall be provided at girder supports at the top of hollow masonry unit foundation walls.
10. Corbeling of masonry shall be in accordance with Section 2104.1. Where an 8-inch (203 mm) wall is corbeled, the top corbel shall not extend higher than the bottom of the floor framing and shall be a full course of headers not less than 6 inches (152 mm) in length or the top course bed joint shall be tied to the vertical wall projection. The tie shall be W2.8 (4.8 mm) and spaced at a maximum horizontal distance of 36 inches (914 mm). The hollow space behind the corbelled masonry shall be filled with mortar or grout.

In lieu of the reinforcement provisions for masonry foundation walls in Table 1807.1.6.3(2), 1807.1.6.3(3) or 1807.1.6.3(4), alternative reinforcing bar sizes and spacings having an equivalent cross-sectional area of reinforcement per linear foot (mm) of wall shall be permitted to be used, provided that the spacing of reinforcement does not exceed 72 inches (1829 mm) and reinforcing bar sizes do not exceed No. 11.

Based on the seismic design category assigned to the structure in accordance with Section 1613, masonry foundation walls designed using Tables 1807.1.6.3(1) through 1807.1.6.3(4) shall be subject to the following limitations:

1. Seismic Design Categories A and B. No additional seismic requirements.
2. Seismic Design Category C. A design using Tables 1807.1.6.3(1) through 1807.1.6.3(4) is subject to the seismic requirements of Section 7.4.3 of TMS 402.
3. Seismic Design Category D. A design using Tables 1807.1.6.3(2) through 1807.1.6.3(4) is subject to the seismic requirements of Section 7.4.4 of TMS 402.
4. Seismic Design Categories E and F. A design using Tables 1807.1.6.3(2) through 1807.1.6.3(4) is subject to the seismic requirements of Section 7.4.5 of TMS 402.

Retaining walls shall be designed to resist the lateral action of soil to produce sliding and overturning with a minimum safety factor of 1.5 in each case. The load combinations of Section 1605 shall not apply to this requirement. Instead, design shall be based on 0.7 times nominal earthquake loads, 1.0 times other nominal loads, and investigation with one or more of the variable loads set to zero. The safety factor against lateral sliding shall be taken as the available soil resistance at the base of the retaining wall foundation divided by the net lateral force applied to the retaining wall.

Exception: Where earthquake loads are included, the minimum safety factor for retaining wall sliding and overturning shall be 1.1.

The design procedures outlined in this section are subject to the following limitations:

1. The frictional resistance for structural walls and slabs on silts and clays shall be limited to one-half of the normal force imposed on the soil by the weight of the footing or slab.
2. Posts embedded in earth shall not be used to provide lateral support for structural or nonstructural materials such as plaster, masonry or concrete unless bracing is provided that develops the limited deflection required.

Wood poles shall be treated in accordance with AWPA U1 for sawn timber posts (Commodity Specification A, Use Category 4B) and for round timber posts (Commodity Specification B, Use Category 4B).

The following formula shall be used in determining the depth of embedment required to resist lateral loads where lateral constraint is not provided at the ground surface, such as by a rigid floor or rigid ground surface pavement, and where lateral constraint is not provided above the ground surface, such as by a structural diaphragm.

(Equation 18-1)

The following formula shall be used to determine the depth of embedment required to resist lateral loads where lateral constraint is provided at the ground surface, such as by a rigid floor or pavement.

(Equation 18-2)

or alternatively

(Equation 18-3)

The backfill in the annular space around columns not embedded in poured footings shall be by one of the following methods:

1. Backfill shall be of concrete with a specified compressive strength of not less than 2,000 psi (13.8 MPa). The hole shall be not less than 4 inches (102 mm) larger than the diameter of the column at its bottom or 4 inches (102 mm) larger than the diagonal dimension of a square or rectangular column.
2. Backfill shall be of clean sand. The sand shall be thoroughly compacted by tamping in layers not more than 8 inches (203 mm) in depth.
3. Backfill shall be of controlled low-strength material (CLSM).

Fill or other surcharge loads shall not be placed adjacent to any building or structure unless such building or structure is capable of withstanding the additional loads caused by the fill or the surcharge. Existing footings or foundations that will be affected by any excavation shall be underpinned or otherwise protected against settlement and shall be protected against detrimental lateral or vertical movement or both.

Exception: Minor grading for landscaping purposes shall be permitted where done with walk-behind equipment, where the grade is not increased more than 1 foot (305 mm) from original design grade or where approved by the building official.

Foundations for buildings and structures founded on expansive soils shall be designed in accordance with Section 1808.6.1 or 1808.6.2.

Foundations placed on or within the active zone of expansive soils shall be designed to resist differential volume changes and to prevent structural damage to the supported structure. Deflection and racking of the supported structure shall be limited to that which will not interfere with the usability and serviceability of the structure.

Foundations placed below where volume change occurs or below expansive soil shall comply with the following provisions:

1. Foundations extending into or penetrating expansive soils shall be designed to prevent uplift of the supported structure.
2. Foundations penetrating expansive soils shall be designed to resist forces exerted on the foundation due to soil volume changes or shall be isolated from the expansive soil.

Where expansive soil is removed in lieu of designing foundations in accordance with Section 1808.6.1 or 1808.6.2, the soil shall be removed to a depth sufficient to ensure a constant moisture content in the remaining soil. Fill material shall not contain expansive soils and shall comply with Section 1804.5 or 1804.6.

Exception: Expansive soil need not be removed to the depth of constant moisture, provided that the confining pressure in the expansive soil created by the fill and supported structure exceeds the swell pressure.

The design, materials and construction of concrete foundations shall comply with Sections 1808.8.1 through 1808.8.6 and the provisions of Chapter 19.

Exception: Where concrete footings supporting walls of light-frame construction are designed in accordance with Table 1809.7, a specific design in accordance with Chapter 19 is not required.

See Section 1905 for additional requirements for foundations of structures assigned to Seismic Design Category C, D, E or F.

For structures assigned to Seismic Design Category D, E or F, provisions of Section 18.13 of ACI 318 shall apply where not in conflict with the provisions of Sections 1808 through 1810.

Except where otherwise protected from frost, foundations and other permanent supports of buildings and structures shall be protected from frost by one or more of the following methods:

1. Extending below the frost line of the locality.
2. Constructing in accordance with ASCE 32.

3. Erecting on solid rock.

   Exception: Free-standing buildings meeting all of the following conditions shall not be required to be protected:

   1. Assigned to Risk Category I.
   2. Area of 600 square feet (56 m²) or less for light-frame construction or 400 square feet (37 m²) or less for other than light-frame construction.
   3. Eave height of 10 feet (3048 mm) or less.

Shallow foundations shall not bear on frozen soil unless such frozen condition is of a permanent character.

The edge thickness of plain concrete footings supporting walls of other than light-frame construction shall be not less than 8 inches (203 mm) where placed on soil or rock.

Exception: For plain concrete footings supporting Group R-3 occupancies, the edge thickness is permitted to be 6 inches (152 mm), provided that the footing does not extend beyond a distance greater than the thickness of the footing on either side of the supported wall.

The design, materials and construction of masonry-unit footings shall comply with Sections 1809.9.1 and 1809.9.2, and the provisions of Chapter 21.

Exception: Where a specific design is not provided, masonry-unit footings supporting walls of light-frame construction shall be permitted to be designed in accordance with Table 1809.7.

Except in Seismic Design Categories D, E and F, pier and curtain wall foundations shall be permitted to be used to support light-frame construction not more than two stories above grade plane, provided that the following requirements are met:

1. All load-bearing walls shall be placed on continuous concrete footings bonded integrally with the exterior wall footings.
2. The minimum actual thickness of a load-bearing masonry wall shall be not less than 4 inches (102 mm) nominal or 3⁵/₈ inches (92 mm) actual thickness, and shall be bonded integrally with piers spaced 6 feet (1829 mm) on center (o.c.).

3. Piers shall be constructed in accordance with Chapter 21 and the following:

   1. 3.1. The unsupported height of the masonry piers shall not exceed 10 times their least dimension.

   2. 3.2. Where structural clay tile or hollow concrete masonry units are used for piers supporting beams and girders, the cellular spaces shall be filled solidly with concrete or Type M or S mortar.

      Exception: Unfilled hollow piers shall be permitted where the unsupported height of the pier is not more than four times its least dimension.

   3. 3.3. Hollow piers shall be capped with 4 inches (102 mm) of solid masonry or concrete or the cavities of the top course shall be filled with concrete or grout.
4. The maximum height of a 4-inch (102 mm) load-bearing masonry foundation wall supporting wood frame walls and floors shall not be more than 4 feet (1219 mm) in height.
5. The unbalanced fill for 4-inch (102 mm) foundation walls shall not exceed 24 inches (610 mm) for solid masonry, nor 12 inches (305 mm) for hollow masonry.

Deep foundation elements standing unbraced in air, water or fluid soils shall be classified as columns and designed as such in accordance with the provisions of this code from their top down to the point where adequate lateral support is provided in accordance with Section 1810.2.1.

Exception: Where the unsupported height to least horizontal dimension of a cast-in-place deep foundation element does not exceed three, it shall be permitted to design and construct such an element as a pedestal in accordance with ACI 318.

Any soil other than fluid soil shall be deemed to afford sufficient lateral support to prevent buckling of deep foundation elements and to permit the design of the elements in accordance with accepted engineering practice and the applicable provisions of this code.

Where deep foundation elements stand unbraced in air, water or fluid soils, it shall be permitted to consider them laterally supported at a point 5 feet (1524 mm) into stiff soil or 10 feet (3048 mm) into soft soil unless otherwise approved by the building official on the basis of a geotechnical investigation by a registered design professional.

Deep foundation elements shall be braced to provide lateral stability in all directions. Three or more elements connected by a rigid cap shall be considered to be braced, provided that the elements are located in radial directions from the centroid of the group not less than 60 degrees (1 rad) apart. A two-element group in a rigid cap shall be considered to be braced along the axis connecting the two elements. Methods used to brace deep foundation elements shall be subject to the approval of the building official.

Deep foundation elements supporting walls shall be placed alternately in lines spaced not less than 1 foot (305 mm) apart and located symmetrically under the center of gravity of the wall load carried, unless effective measures are taken to provide for eccentricity and lateral forces, or the foundation elements are adequately braced to provide for lateral stability.

For structures assigned to Seismic Design Category D, E or F, deep foundation elements on Site Class E or F sites, as determined in Section 1613.2.2, shall be designed and constructed to withstand maximum imposed curvatures from earthquake ground motions and structure response. Curvatures shall include free-field soil strains modified for soil-foundation-structure interaction coupled with foundation element deformations associated with earthquake loads imparted to the foundation by the structure.

The allowable stresses for materials used in deep foundation elements shall not exceed those specified in Table 1810.3.2.6.

The allowable compressive stress in the concrete shall be permitted to be increased as specified in Table 1810.3.2.6 for those portions of permanently cased cast-in-place elements that satisfy all of the following conditions:

1. The design shall not use the casing to resist any portion of the axial load imposed.
2. The casing shall have a sealed tip and be mandrel driven.
3. The thickness of the casing shall be not less than manufacturer's standard gage No.14 (0.068 inch) (1.75 mm).
4. The casing shall be seamless or provided with seams of strength equal to the basic material and be of a configuration that will provide confinement to the cast-in-place concrete.
5. The ratio of steel yield strength (F_y) to specified compressive strength (f '_c) shall be not less than six.
6. The nominal diameter of the element shall not be greater than 16 inches (406 mm).

Use of allowable stresses greater than those specified in Section 1810.3.2.6 shall be permitted where supporting data justifying such higher stresses is filed with the building official. Such substantiating data shall include the following:

1. A geotechnical investigation in accordance with Section 1803.
2. Load tests in accordance with Section 1810.3.3.1.2, regardless of the load supported by the element.

The design and installation of the deep foundation elements shall be under the direct supervision of a registered design professional knowledgeable in the field of soil mechanics and deep foundations who shall submit a report to the building official stating that the elements as installed satisfy the design criteria.

It shall be permitted to evaluate load tests of deep foundation elements using any of the following methods:

1. Davisson Offset Limit.
2. Brinch-Hansen 90-percent Criterion.
3. Butler-Hoy Criterion.
4. Other methods approved by the building official.

Where required by the design, the uplift capacity of a single deep foundation element shall be determined by an approved method of analysis based on a minimum factor of safety of three or by load tests conducted in accordance with ASTM D3689. The maximum allowable uplift load shall not exceed the ultimate load capacity as determined in Section 1810.3.3.1.2, using the results of load tests conducted in accordance with ASTM D3689, divided by a factor of safety of two.

Exception: Where uplift is due to wind or seismic loading, the minimum factor of safety shall be two where capacity is determined by an analysis and one and one-half where capacity is determined by load tests.

For grouped deep foundation elements subjected to uplift, the allowable uplift load for the group shall be calculated by a generally accepted method of analysis. Where the deep foundation elements in the group are placed at a center-to-center spacing less than three times the least horizontal dimension of the largest single element, the allowable uplift load for the group is permitted to be calculated as the lesser of:

1. The proposed individual allowable uplift load times the number of elements in the group.
2. Two-thirds of the effective weight of the group and the soil contained within a block defined by the perimeter of the group and the length of the element, plus two-thirds of the ultimate shear resistance along the soil block.

The allowable axial design load, P_a, of helical piles shall be determined as follows:

(Equation 18-4)

where P_u is the least value of:

1. Sum of the areas of the helical bearing plates times the ultimate bearing capacity of the soil or rock comprising the bearing stratum.
2. Ultimate capacity determined from well-documented correlations with installation torque.
3. Ultimate capacity determined from load tests.
4. Ultimate axial capacity of pile shaft.
5. Ultimate axial capacity of pile shaft couplings.
6. Sum of the ultimate axial capacity of helical bearing plates affixed to pile.

Where deep foundation elements are installed through subsiding fills or other subsiding strata and derive support from underlying firmer materials, consideration shall be given to the downward frictional forces potentially imposed on the elements by the subsiding upper strata.

Where the influence of subsiding fills is considered as imposing loads on the element, the allowable stresses specified in this chapter shall be permitted to be increased where satisfactory substantiating data are submitted.

Cast-in-place or grouted-in-place deep foundation elements without a permanent casing shall have a specified diameter of not less than 12 inches (305 mm). The element length shall not exceed 30 times the specified diameter.

Exception: The length of the element is permitted to exceed 30 times the specified diameter, provided that the design and installation of the deep foundations are under the direct supervision of a registered design professional knowledgeable in the field of soil mechanics and deep foundations. The registered design professional shall submit a report to the building official stating that the elements were installed in compliance with the approved construction documents.

Sections of structural steel H-piles shall comply with the requirements for HP shapes in ASTM A6, or the following:

1. The flange projections shall not exceed 14 times the minimum thickness of metal in either the flange or the web and the flange widths shall be not less than 80 percent of the depth of the section.
2. The nominal depth in the direction of the web shall be not less than 8 inches (203 mm).
3. Flanges and web shall have a minimum nominal thickness of ³/₈ inch (9.5 mm).

Sections of fully welded steel piles fabricated from plates shall comply with the following:

1. The flange projections shall not exceed 14 times the minimum thickness of metal in either the flange or the web and the flange widths shall be not less than 80 percent of the depth of the section.
2. The nominal depth in the direction of the web shall be not less than 8 inches (203 mm).
3. Flanges and web shall have a minimum nominal thickness of ³/₈ inch (9.5 mm).

Steel pipes and tubes used as deep foundation elements shall have a nominal outside diameter of not less than 8 inches (203 mm). Where steel pipes or tubes are driven open ended, they shall have not less than 0.34 square inch (219 mm²) of steel in cross section to resist each 1,000 foot-pounds (1356 Nm) of pile hammer energy, or shall have the equivalent strength for steels having a yield strength greater than 35,000 psi (241 MPa) or the wave equation analysis shall be permitted to be used to assess compression stresses induced by driving to evaluate if the pile section is appropriate for the selected hammer. Where a pipe or tube with wall thickness less than 0.179 inch (4.6 mm) is driven open ended, a suitable cutting shoe shall be provided. Concrete-filled steel pipes or tubes in structures assigned to Seismic Design Category C, D, E or F shall have a wall thickness of not less than ³/₁₆ inch (5 mm). The pipe or tube casing for socketed drilled shafts shall have a nominal outside diameter of not less than 18 inches (457 mm), a wall thickness of not less than ³/₈ inch (9.5 mm) and a suitable steel driving shoe welded to the bottom; the diameter of the rock socket shall be approximately equal to the inside diameter of the casing.

Splices shall be constructed so as to provide and maintain true alignment and position of the component parts of the deep foundation element during installation and subsequent thereto and shall be designed to resist the axial and shear forces and moments occurring at the location of the splice during driving and for design load combinations. Where deep foundation elements of the same type are being spliced, splices shall develop not less than 50 percent of the bending strength of the weaker section. Where deep foundation elements of different materials or different types are being spliced, splices shall develop the full compressive strength and not less than 50 percent of the tension and bending strength of the weaker section. Where structural steel cores are to be spliced, the ends shall be milled or ground to provide full contact and shall be full-depth welded.

Splices occurring in the upper 10 feet (3048 mm) of the embedded portion of an element shall be designed to resist at allowable stresses the moment and shear that would result from an assumed eccentricity of the axial load of 3 inches (76 mm), or the element shall be braced in accordance with Section 1810.2.2 to other deep foundation elements that do not have splices in the upper 10 feet (3048 mm) of embedment.

For structures assigned to Seismic Design Category C, D, E or F splices of deep foundation elements shall develop the lesser of the following:

1. The nominal strength of the deep foundation element.
2. The axial and shear forces and moments from the seismic load effects including overstrength factor in accordance with Section 2.3.6 or 2.4.5 of ASCE 7.

Longitudinal steel shall be arranged in a symmetrical pattern and be laterally tied with steel ties or wire spiral spaced center to center as follows:

1. At not more than 1 inch (25 mm) for the first five ties or spirals at each end; then
2. At not more than 4 inches (102 mm), for the remainder of the first 2 feet (610 mm) from each end; and then
3. At not more than 6 inches (152 mm) elsewhere.

The size of ties and spirals shall be as follows:

1. For piles having a least horizontal dimension of 16 inches (406 mm) or less, wire shall not be smaller than 0.22 inch (5.6 mm) (No. 5 gage).
2. For piles having a least horizontal dimension of more than 16 inches (406 mm) and less than 20 inches (508 mm), wire shall not be smaller than 0.238 inch (6 mm) (No. 4 gage).
3. For piles having a least horizontal dimension of 20 inches (508 mm) and larger, wire shall not be smaller than ¹/₄ inch (6.4 mm) round or 0.259 inch (6.6 mm) (No. 3 gage).

The effective prestress in the pile shall be not less than 400 psi (2.76 MPa) for piles up to 30 feet (9144 mm) in length, 550 psi (3.79 MPa) for piles up to 50 feet (15 240 mm) in length and 700 psi (4.83 MPa) for piles greater than 50 feet (15 240 mm) in length.

Effective prestress shall be based on an assumed loss of 30,000 psi (207 MPa) in the prestressing steel. The tensile stress in the prestressing steel shall not exceed the values specified in ACI 318.

For structures assigned to Seismic Design Category D, E or F, precast prestressed piles shall have transverse reinforcement in accordance with the following:

1. Requirements in ACI 318, Chapter 18, need not apply, unless specifically referenced.
2. Where the total pile length in the soil is 35 feet (10 668 mm) or less, the lateral transverse reinforcement in the ductile region shall occur through the length of the pile. Where the pile length exceeds 35 feet (10 668 mm), the ductile pile region shall be taken as the greater of 35 feet (10 668 mm) or the distance from the underside of the pile cap to the point of zero curvature plus three times the least pile dimension.
3. In the ductile region, the center-to-center spacing of the spirals or hoop reinforcement shall not exceed one-fifth of the least pile dimension, six times the diameter of the longitudinal strand or 8 inches (203 mm), whichever is smallest.
4. Circular spiral reinforcement shall be spliced by lapping one full turn and bending the end of each spiral to a 90-degree hook or by use of a mechanical or welded splice complying with Section 25.5.7 of ACI 318.

5. Where the transverse reinforcement consists of circular spirals, the volumetric ratio of spiral transverse reinforcement in the ductile region shall comply with the following:

   (Equation 18-6)

   but not exceed:

   (Equation 18-7)

   where:

   A_g = Pile cross-sectional area, square inches (mm²).

   f '_c = Specified compressive strength of concrete, psi (MPa).

   f_yh = Yield strength of spiral reinforcement = 85,000 psi (586 MPa).

   P = Axial load on pile, pounds (kN), as determined from Equations 16-5 and 16-7.

   ρ_s = Volumetric ratio (vol. spiral/vol. core).

   This required amount of spiral reinforcement is permitted to be obtained by providing an inner and outer spiral.

   Exception: The minimum spiral reinforcement required by Equation 18-6 shall not apply in cases where the design includes full consideration of load combinations specified in ASCE 7, Section 2.3.6 and the applicable overstrength factor, Ω₀. In such cases, minimum spiral reinforcement shall be as specified in Section 1810.3.8.1.

6. Where transverse reinforcement consists of rectangular hoops and cross ties, the total cross-sectional area of lateral transverse reinforcement in the ductile region with spacing, ^s, and perpendicular dimension, h_c, shall conform to:

   (Equation 18-8)

   but not less than:

   (Equation 18-9)

   where:

   ^f_yh = yield strength of transversereinforcement ≤70,000 psi (483 MPa).

   ^h_c = Cross-sectional dimension of pile core measured center to center of hoop reinforcement, inch (mm).

   ^s = Spacing of transverse reinforcement measured along length of pile, inch (mm).

   A_sh = Cross-sectional area of transverse reinforcement, square inches (mm²).

   f'_c = Specified compressive strength of concrete, psi (MPa).

   The hoops and cross ties shall be equivalent to deformed bars not less than No. 3 in size. Rectangular hoop ends shall terminate at a corner with seismic hooks.

   Outside of the length of the pile requiring transverse confinement reinforcing, the spiral or hoop reinforcing with a volumetric ratio not less than one-half of that required for transverse confinement reinforcing shall be provided.

For structures assigned to Seismic Design Category C, D, E, or F, the maximum factored axial load on precast prestressed piles subjected to a combination of seismic lateral force and axial load shall not exceed the following values:

1. 0.2f '_c A_g for square piles
2. 0.4f '_c A_g for circular or octagonal piles

(Equation 18-10)

For SI:

Reinforcement where required shall be assembled and tied together and shall be placed in the deep foundation element as a unit before the reinforced portion of the element is filled with concrete.

Where a structure is assigned to Seismic Design Category C, reinforcement shall be provided in accordance with Section 1810.3.9.4.1. Where a structure is assigned to Seismic Design Category D, E or F, reinforcement shall be provided in accordance with Section 1810.3.9.4.2.

For structures assigned to Seismic Design Category C, cast-in-place deep foundation elements shall be reinforced as specified in this section. Reinforcement shall be provided where required by analysis.

Not fewer than four longitudinal bars, with a minimum longitudinal reinforcement ratio of 0.0025, shall be provided throughout the minimum reinforced length of the element as defined in this section starting at the top of the element. The minimum reinforced length of the element shall be taken as the greatest of the following:

1. One-third of the element length.
2. A distance of 10 feet (3048 mm).
3. Three times the least element dimension.
4. The distance from the top of the element to the point where the design cracking moment determined in accordance with Section 1810.3.9.1 exceeds the required moment strength determined using the load combinations of Section 1605.2.

Transverse reinforcement shall consist of closed ties or spirals with a minimum ³/₈ inch (9.5 mm) diameter. Spacing of transverse reinforcement shall not exceed the smaller of 6 inches (152 mm) or 8-longitudinal-bar diameters, within a distance of three times the least element dimension from the bottom of the pile cap. Spacing of transverse reinforcement shall not exceed 16 longitudinal bar diameters throughout the remainder of the reinforced length.

For structures assigned to Seismic Design Category D, E or F, cast-in-place deep foundation elements shall be reinforced as specified in this section. Reinforcement shall be provided where required by analysis.

Not fewer than four longitudinal bars, with a minimum longitudinal reinforcement ratio of 0.005, shall be provided throughout the minimum reinforced length of the element as defined in this section starting at the top of the element. The minimum reinforced length of the element shall be taken as the greatest of the following:

1. One-half of the element length.
2. A distance of 10 feet (3048 mm).
3. Three times the least element dimension.
4. The distance from the top of the element to the point where the design cracking moment determined in accordance with Section 1810.3.9.1 exceeds the required moment strength determined using the load combinations of Section 1605.2.

Transverse reinforcement shall consist of closed ties or spirals not smaller than No. 3 bars for elements with a least dimension up to 20 inches (508 mm), and No. 4 bars for larger elements. Throughout the remainder of the reinforced length outside the regions with transverse confinement reinforcement, as specified in Section 1810.3.9.4.2.1 or 1810.3.9.4.2.2, the spacing of transverse reinforcement shall not exceed the least of the following:

1. 12 longitudinal bar diameters.
2. One-half the least dimension of the element.
3. 12 inches (305 mm).

Socketed drilled shafts shall have a permanent pipe or tube casing that extends down to bedrock and an uncased socket drilled into the bedrock, both filled with concrete. Socketed drilled shafts shall have reinforcement or a structural steel core for the length as indicated by an approved method of analysis.

The depth of the rock socket shall be sufficient to develop the full load-bearing capacity of the element with a minimum safety factor of two, but the depth shall be not less than the outside diameter of the pipe or tube casing. The design of the rock socket is permitted to be predicated on the sum of the allowable load-bearing pressure on the bottom of the socket plus bond along the sides of the socket.

Where a structural steel core is used, the gross cross-sectional area of the core shall not exceed 25 percent of the gross area of the drilled shaft.

Reinforcement shall consist of deformed reinforcing bars in accordance with ASTM A615 Grade 60 or 75 or ASTM A722 Grade 150.

The steel pipe or tube shall have a minimum wall thickness of ³/₁₆ inch (4.8 mm). Splices shall comply with Section 1810.3.6. The steel pipe or tube shall have a minimum yield strength of 45,000 psi (310 MPa) and a minimum elongation of 15 percent as shown by mill certifications or two coupon test samples per 40,000 pounds (18 160 kg) of pipe or tube.

For structures assigned to Seismic Design Category C, D, E or F, concrete deep foundation elements shall be connected to the pile cap by embedding the element reinforcement or field-placed dowels anchored in the element into the pile cap for a distance equal to their development length in accordance with ACI 318. It shall be permitted to connect precast prestressed piles to the pile cap by developing the element prestressing strands into the pile cap provided that the connection is ductile. For deformed bars, the development length is the full development length for compression, or tension in the case of uplift, without reduction for excess reinforcement in accordance with Section 25.4.10 of ACI 318. Alternative measures for laterally confining concrete and maintaining toughness and ductile-like behavior at the top of the element shall be permitted provided that the design is such that any hinging occurs in the confined region.

The minimum transverse steel ratio for confinement shall be not less than one-half of that required for columns.

For resistance to uplift forces, anchorage of steel pipes, tubes or H-piles to the pile cap shall be made by means other than concrete bond to the bare steel section. Concrete-filled steel pipes or tubes shall have reinforcement of not less than 0.01 times the cross-sectional area of the concrete fill developed into the cap and extending into the fill a length equal to two times the required cap embedment, but not less than the development length in tension of the reinforcement.

For structures assigned to Seismic Design Category D, E or F, deep foundation element resistance to uplift forces or rotational restraint shall be provided by anchorage into the pile cap, designed considering the combined effect of axial forces due to uplift and bending moments due to fixity to the pile cap. Anchorage shall develop not less than 25 percent of the strength of the element in tension. Anchorage into the pile cap shall comply with the following:

1. In the case of uplift, the anchorage shall be capable of developing the least of the following:

   1. 1.1. The nominal tensile strength of the longitudinal reinforcement in a concrete element.
   2. 1.2. The nominal tensile strength of a steel element.

   3. 1.3. The frictional force developed between the element and the soil multiplied by 1.3.

      Exception: The anchorage is permitted to be designed to resist the axial tension force resulting from the seismic load effects including overstrength factor in accordance with Section 2.3.6 or 2.4.5 of ASCE 7.

2. In the case of rotational restraint, the anchorage shall be designed to resist the axial and shear forces, and moments resulting from the seismic load effects including overstrength factor in accordance with Section 2.3.6 or 2.4.5 of ASCE 7 or the anchorage shall be capable of developing the full axial, bending and shear nominal strength of the element.

Where the vertical lateral-force-resisting elements are columns, the pile cap flexural strengths shall exceed the column flexural strength. The connection between batter piles and pile caps shall be designed to resist the nominal strength of the pile acting as a short column. Batter piles and their connection shall be designed to resist forces and moments that result from the application of seismic load effects including overstrength factor in accordance with Section 2.3.6 or 2.4.5 of ASCE 7.

For structures assigned to Seismic Design Category C, D, E or F, individual deep foundations shall be interconnected by ties. Unless it can be demonstrated that equivalent restraint is provided by reinforced concrete beams within slabs on grade or reinforced concrete slabs on grade or confinement by competent rock, hard cohesive soils or very dense granular soils, ties shall be capable of carrying, in tension or compression, a force equal to the lesser of the product of the larger pile cap or column design gravity load times the seismic coefficient, SDS, divided by 10, and 25 percent of the smaller pile or column design gravity load.

Exception: In Group R-3 and U occupancies of light-frame construction, deep foundation elements supporting foundation walls, isolated interior posts detailed so the element is not subject to lateral loads or exterior decks and patios are not subject to interconnection where the soils are of adequate stiffness, subject to the approval of the building official.

Micropile deep foundation elements shall be permitted to be formed in holes advanced by rotary or percussive drilling methods, with or without casing. The elements shall be grouted with a fluid cement grout. The grout shall be pumped through a tremie pipe extending to the bottom of the element until grout of suitable quality returns at the top of the element. The following requirements apply to specific installation methods:

1. For micropiles grouted inside a temporary casing, the reinforcing bars shall be inserted prior to withdrawal of the casing.The casing shall be withdrawn in a controlled manner with the grout level maintained at the top of the element to ensure that the grout completely fills the drill hole. During withdrawal of the casing, the grout level inside the casing shall be monitored to verify that the flow of grout inside the casing is not obstructed.
2. For a micropile or portion thereof grouted in an open drill hole in soil without temporary casing, the minimum design diameter of the drill hole shall be verified by a suitable device during grouting.
3. For micropiles designed for end bearing, a suitable means shall be employed to verify that the bearing surface is properly cleaned prior to grouting.
4. Subsequent micropiles shall not be drilled near elements that have been grouted until the grout has had sufficient time to harden.
5. Micropiles shall be grouted as soon as possible after drilling is completed.
6. For micropiles designed with a full-length casing, the casing shall be pulled back to the top of the bond zone and reinserted or some other suitable means employed to ensure grout coverage outside the casing.